It seems we can find artifacts, skeletons and old dwellings. Other than putting a date on those artifacts with carbon dating can anything be proven, or is the rest guess-work?
If ceramics are found a thermoluminescence test can be done to determine when the ceramic was fired.
There are tons of things that can be done.
For example, butchering meat can leave distinctive marks on bones. Archeologists can tell that a bone was butchered by humans using tools, even if no tool or human remains were found.
The age of human skeletons can be pinpointed. So they will know that a burial is a female aged 50-55.
There have been a number of shipwrecks found that date from prehistoric periods. We can tell what type of sailing technology they had, as well as what goods they were trading. For example: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/archaeology/7238663/3000-year-old-shipwreck-shows-European-trade-was-thriving-in-Bronze-Age.html
This answer just scratches the surface of the topic.
Carbon dating isn't as reliable as you might think. There are many factors that can make carbon dating unreliable. Sample contamination, atmospheric variation, environmental contamination, sample size. Carbon dating is only reliable if a proper sample can be obtained. Even then the sample should be compared against other data to confirm that the age is likely true for example a skeleton found in a layer above another skeleton is likely newer. If carbon dating finds otherwise more research is going to be needed.