English has plenty of surnames that were locative in origin. Sometimes the preposition is still in there: Atwood, Bywater. More often not: Lincoln, Washington. (The first two are toponyms, after generic features; the last two are for specific named places.) People don't realize it because they usually lost the prepositions in English, and the etymologies are obscure to the modern eye.
I just started looking at the first few pages of Reaney and Wilson's Dictionary of English [Language] Surnames via Google Books.
Abear: first cite 1332 "atte Bere", "at the swine pasture", probably "swineherd"
Abercrombie: a barony in Fife, first cite 1296 "de Abercromby"
Abery, Abra, Abrey, Abry: from Abery House in Ilford or Avebury, first cite 1327 "Albo(u)rough"
Acaster: a place Acaster, first cite 1219 "de Acastr'"
Ackland, Acland: "Acca's lane", or for a place where oaks grew, first cite 1275 "de Ackelane"
Ackroyd: "dweller by the oak-clearing"
Ackworth: a place name, first citation 1219 "de Akewrth'"
Acomb: first citation 1210 "de Akum", either from Acomb (a place) or "atte Combe", "dweller in the valley"
Later examples:
Barrow: Adam de Barewe 1192
Barrington (any -ton name is a dead giveaway): Fulk de Barenton 1198
Barnwell: Clac on Byrnewillan 972 or 1130 (?), Eustace de Bernewell' 1177
Barnsley: John de Barnusley 1340-1450
Barnhouse: William Bernehus 1147, from place Barn House, place Barnhouse, or Old English "bere-aern, hus", "dweller at the house by the barn"
(Place name above means that Reaney and Wilson say that it's a specific place. I elided some details to save typing: the last actually says "From Barn House in Brightling, Barnhouse Fm in Shipley (Sx [Sussex, I think]), or 'dweller...'". Also, in the first part, I omitted full names to save typing.)
This is far from a comprehensive answer, and I hope it doesn't fail to meet the sub's standards, but English does have those last names...ones that come to mind include English, French, and Scot(t). There are also names like Birmingham, which would originally have been something like "John of Birmingham" (equivalent to de and von) before the "of" fell away.
The 'von' in German signifies more than just location. In most cases it signifies nobility.
Another thing to keep in mind is that more often than not, a person with a locality as a last name is probably not directly from that location. If you meet a someone named Bob Birmingham, it means that someone moved from Birmingham to someplace else, and picked up Birmingham as a last name in the new place because of their former locale. In Birmingham it would not have helped identify which Bob.
The further back you go in English history, the clearer the preposition is. Old English has æt, on, of, and in ($name æt $placename, so Ælfweard æt Dentune). After the conquest the French move in, (and poorly transcribe many names in the Domesday book), but the de preposition is amalgamated with the rest of it: - Dash, Daysh, Delafield etc., are all de+$something.
In the Domesday book, there are at least 163 names without a preposition, so the precedent is there, but preposition loss begins around 1300, and is mostly gone by the 1400s - a couple of places (Lancashire) hang on to their prepositions until the early 1500s, but it's mostly gone by the end of the 1400s.
Why there is the loss isn't clear.