The Jacob's staff, or cross-staff, a very early latitude instrument used in Europe. In Asia, there was something called a Kamal (apologies for the Wiki link, but it's quick and it works)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamal_(navigation)

that could also measure the sun's height at noon, or take other celestial measurements.

In Europe, the cross-staff was eventually replaced by the mariner's astrolabe, the octant and the sextant.

All of these devices, of course, are only useful inasmuch as there are maps and/or navigational guides that understand latitude and/or place landmarks at certain markers of latitude (usually degrees), that are used in navigation. In other words, it's pretty pointless to measure your latitude without reference to other points, so the latitude measurement became more important over time as maps and sailing guides were developed and promulgated.

The Portuguese in particular popularized the mariner's astrolabe as part of their general research into the mariners' arts, during the 1500s. The octant and sextant replaced that eventually, because both can take more precise angular measurements than the mariners' astrolabe. (Among other things, multiple mirrors in the octant and sextant allow the Sun or other celestial body and the horizon to be sighted at the same time.) But none of those instruments matter without maps that have latitude plotted on them.

So, no, there's not a lot of evidence for measuring latitude before the cross-staff, because the measurement in itself is not particularly useful without a greater understanding of geometry.