What is the evolution of having two separate corps for officers and enlisted? What were some of the more common rank systems that major historical powers used and when was the distinction between commissioned officers and non-commissioned officers made?
I wrote this here a few days ago answering a similar question regarding how the distinction between officers and enlisted came about.
In essence, nations have different histories regarding ranks and nations have borrowed from one another. In the US, since the founding of the nation, the oath of enlistment and oath of office for commissioned officers have differed. Indeed, to be a commissioned officer, you are essentially commissioned by the commander in chief - the President - and assume the duties of your office. As thus, only officers can command units/aircraft/ships - duties which ultimately belong to the commander in chief but are delegated out by him.
Regarding common historical ranks: the best example actually comes from the naval side of things. In essence, due to how long standing professional navies have existed in contrast to standing professional armies, a great deal of history surrounds each naval rank. This navy.mil history page on the duties of officers and ships of war goes into the background on a lot of ranks. In addition, writing about naval ranks has existed for centuries - Thomas Venn's Military and maritime [sic] discipline (1672) goes into this as well.
Navies also have borrowed from one another, and the US has taken quite a bit from the Royal Navy. The traditions too of having the commanding officer of a ship being the Captain (even if he/she isn't of that rank - and on that note, Captain is a senior officer vice a junior office in the Army/Marines/Air Force), of there being Admirals, etc. has existed for quite some time across the world's naval ranks.