Did they do quick repairs and patchwork to get back in the fight if the damage was sizable enough or would it have to be repaired at a dock? I saw a video of a carrier that appeared to have a roughly 10 foot wide hole in the middle of the launch deck and it got me curious.
In many cases yes you would plywood over the patches. At both Coral Sea and Midway the Yorktown was able to resume flight operations after bomb hits. It was less safe and required more concentration on the pilot's parts but it was doable. It was in general a much larger deal to put the fires out from the strike then to repair the flight decks.
Should also be noted that it depended on the spot. Damage forward meant a carrier could still recover her planes, and damage aft would not fully prevent her from launching.
But too much damage could cripple it. At Midway multiple strikes on all the Kido Butai flattops meant there was no hope of repair once the fires took hold too. Though one (I want to say Shokaku at Coral Sea) was able to resume some flight ops by shoring up the elevator which had suffered a hydraulic failure and dropped about a foot below the level of the flight deck.
It's also worth pointing out that several classes of carriers in WW2 could launch aircraft from their hangar decks (the deck below the flight deck).
http://www.ww2f.com/topic/52811-hangar-deck-catapult-operations/