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TLDR: This is a time period I have studied extensively! I have included an italicized TLDR at the start of each section, which all describe various influences that led to Temujin becoming the Genghis Khan we know, as opposed to simply another nomadic raider. My sources are in my 5th comment

Genghis Khan definitely benefited from circumstances of his time. His life can be split into three parts, all roughly 22 years long, that I would define with survival, unification, and conquest. Some historians believe that Genghis Khan was born sometime around 1162, but we are not entirely sure. We do know that he was born with the name Temujin, which has roots in the Mongolian word temür meaning "of iron". In fact, his name transliterated into Chinese is written as 鐵木真 (tiemuzhen), with the first word being "iron" (鐵). But before we talk about his life, it's important to look at what was going on in East Asia before his birth

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BEFORE KHANS

TLDR: Temujin's khanate followed many precedents set by the Xiongnu (209 BC to 93 AD), who raided China. However, it was the recognition of the Tang Emperors (618 AD to 97 AD) as the Heavenly Khan by the nomads that established the concept of khans ruling China rather than simply raiding China. This would later guide Mongol military policy

The most ancient influence upon Temujin that we know of is the Xiongnu (匈奴), who dominated the steppes north of China from the 3rd century BC to the late 1st century AD. The Xiongnu are rumored to be ancestors of the Huns who torched much of the Roman Empire, but we have little strong proof of that. However, much like the Huns in Europe, the Xiongnu certainly had a fearsome reputation in East Asia. The Han Dynasty (漢朝) certainly struggled against their cavalry for a long time, and Han Wudi (漢武帝) pretty much bankrupted the empire in the Han-Xiongnu War (133 BC to 89 AD). However, the Xiongnu nation simply extracted tribute rather than seeking to rule all of China as the dominant East Asian power. The Great Wall was a direct response to the Xiongnu threat, and they left influences that would impact all East Asian nomads who followed, such as the decimal military system and the legacy of unified nomads. Temujin himself even considered the Xiongnu to be the forefathers of the Mongols, which probably was not an uncommon belief among the nomads that followed the Xiongnu

Between the end of the Xiongnu and the rise of the Tang Dynasty (唐朝) in 618, we see many nomads moving into various parts of northern China and sinicizing. Many of them would later rise up in the chaos of the Jìn Dynasty (晉朝: 265 AD to 420 AD; unaffiliated with the Jīn Dynasty of Genghis Khan's time) and establish kingdoms and empires that were sinicized to various degrees. The nomads who rejected sinicization and retained their nomadic identities would continue to raid the towns and cities of the more urbanized peoples, regardless of their origin and degree of sinicization. But with the Tang Dynasty, we see a shift in that mindset

One title held by the ruling Li family of the Tang Dynasty was 天可汗 (Heavenly Khan), bestowed by the nomads. In effect, the Li family ruled as 皇帝 (emperor) and 可汗 (khan). The role of emperor is straightforward: they were the political leader and ruled the dominant empire of East Asia. The role of khan was more military, like a supreme warlord or chieftain. One could analogize the role of Heavenly Khan with that of the President of the United States in regards to NATO. The Tang emperor could issue decrees to the nomadic tribes to gather and fight against common foes. This is the first time we see a single person simultaneously holding the title of khan and ruling the Chinese

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BEFORE MONGOLS

TLDR: Increasingly powerful nomadic groups began to challenge the weakening Li family for the title of Heavenly Khan, and the steppes fell into chaos. Increasingly powerful regional warlords began to challenge the weakening Li family for the title of Chinese Emperor, and China proper fell into chaos. This set the stage for the four power players during Genghis Khan's time

Upon the collapse of the Tang Empire, we see another chaotic period similar to the one I described in the previous paragraph. However, things were different this time. During the An Shi Rebellion (安史之亂) of 755, the Uyghurs had began to adopt the title of Heavenly Khan. The Li family remained as emperors, but the nomads no longer unanimously recognized their authority as military chieftains. The Uyghurs were later defeated by the Yenisei Kirghiz (who continued to recognize the Tang emperors as the true Heavenly Khans) in 840. The rise and fall of the Uyghurs could be seen as infighting within the Heavenly Khan system

By the end of the Tang Dynasty, the Khitans (契丹) had benefited from the Heavenly Khan system and dominated the Liao River area in Manchuria. When the Tang Dynasty collapsed into warlordism, the Khitans established the Liao Dynasty (遼朝: 907 to 1125) as the inheritors to the title of Heavenly Khan. Before the Song Dynasty could reunify most of China in 960, the Liao Dynasty had already once occupied Kaifeng of Henan (before it became the capital of the Song Dynasty) in central China, but pulled out due to logistical issues. However, it is clear that the nomads north of China had a new mindset: ruling China as khans. In fact, the Liao Dynasty were firmly in control of the Beijing-Tianjin area

By 960, China was split into three. The Song Dynasty had succeeded the imperial legacy of the Tang emperors and ruled most of the Chinese. The Liao Dynasty had succeeded the military legacy of the Heavenly Khans and ruled the Beijing-Tianjin area and the steppes north of the Great Wall, which included the Mongolian steppes and its nomads. The Tanguts (党項) established the Western Xia (西夏) and were in control of the western stretches of the Great Wall, the Hexi Corridor, and the Western Regions (more specifically, the provinces of Ningxia, Gansu, eastern Qinghai, northern Shaanxi, northeastern Xinjiang, southwest Inner Mongolia, and southernmost Outer Mongolia). The Song were unable to access the horses previous Chinese dynasties had, and they struggled to fight in the plains of northern China. The Khitan ruled their urbanized lands as emperors and their pastoral lands as khans, but were largely content with ruling the Beijing-Tianjin area. The Tanguts mostly held their ground and shifted alliances whenever it was convenient. This Three Kingdoms-style stalemate was broken by the Jurchens (女真). They established the Jīn Dynasty, which lasted from 1115 until 1234, but never fully controlled the Mongolian steppes

For clarification:

Jìn Dynasty: established by the Han Chinese, originated in the Jìn land of China

• 晉朝 (Jìn-land Empire)

• 265 to 420

Jīn Dynasty: established by the Jurchens, originated in Manchuria

• 金朝 (Golden Empire)

• 1115 to 1234

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