Southeast Asia is a big region and composed of a dazzling array of different ethnic groups; naturally, the conduct of warfare would vary from one group to the next depending on their particular circumstance. For instance, low level raiding for slaves and headhunting characterized warfare on Amboina and surrounding islands. The coastal Amboinese people would set out in vessels known as kora-kora and raid coastal settlements for heads to bring back to the ceremonial hall in their village and slaves to defray the cost of the expedition. The people living inland such the Alifuru (of the nearby Seram island) also engaged in headhunting. Raiding wasn’t the only form of warfare practiced and the various villages of the Alifuru and Amboinese could and did form confederations which went to war over territory, tribute and maybe the occasional magical artifact. The Amboinese, for example, combined the various kora-koras from several villages into fleets called hongi. When the Portuguese gained control of these islands in 16th century, they utilized the hongi to organize their native allies to defend their power. When the Dutch supplanted the Portuguese, they once again turned to the hongi as a way to mobilize their native allies to maintain their power.

The kora-kora is either described as similar to an outrigger canoe or galley; either way, it was oar driven, 24 -30 meters in length, held between 50-90 men, and excellent for coastal use but suffered in rougher waters. The kora-kora was mounted with swivel guns imported from Java and its sailors often were well equipped with matchlocks. From Dutch reports in the seventeenth century indicate that the Amboinese took poor care of their firearms and artillery and so melee was the preferred means of combat. In regards to melee, both the Amboinese and Alifuru carried shields. The Alifuru and the Amboinese had large rectangular wooden shields though the Amboinese also carried smaller circular shields made out of rattan. Access to armor was dependent on wealth with the rich equipping themselves with richly decorated copper helmets. The Amboinese and Alifuru were both well equipped with javelins as well as machetes (useful for cutting foliage as well as people). The bow and arrow had fallen out of favor by the seventeenth century in coastal Amboina due to access to artillery and firearms but was seen inland among the Alifuru who fired barbed and poisoned bamboo tipped arrows. The Amboinese also utilized the blowpipe for warfare, though they were hardly unique. European reports note everyone from the Burmese to the Javanese and Acehnese employed such weapons. The danger of the blowpipe was the poisoned dart. As with everywhere else in Southeast Asia, the blowpipe fell out of favor with the increased access to firearms.

There are other aspects of warfare of Southeast Asian warfare not covered here but there are certain similarities between Amboina and elsewhere. For instance, the access to armor was wealth mediated. The elite could afford metal cuirasses and chain while the common soldier went unprotected or covered himself with any number of materials such as rattan plates, buffalo hides and padded cloth (shields too were made of rattan, buffalo leather , metal as well as exotic items such as turtle shells). Now moving onto aspects not discussed in the Amboina example: Of interest is that cavalry was prevalent across the region. Many parts of Southeast Asia, with hot weather and lack of fodder, are poor places to raise horses though there were horse breeding centers in northern Burma, Java and Vietnamese highlands. The product of these centers were short but hardy ponies; the horsemen mounted on said ponies could fight well in melee with two handed pikes (the Javanese would use a hook to secure themselves on the saddle to maintain stability) or attack at range with javelins and darts. Southeast Asian armies could bolster their own stocks by importing horses from the Middle East as well though this was expensive. The other form of cavalry prevalent in southeast Asia is elephant cavalry. The elephant if of importance because it was associated with kingship and more often than not, military leadership directed combat from the backs of elephants (the height of the elephant also made it a fantastic mobile observation post). The elephant also could carry ‘castles’ on its back carrying multiple soldiers equipped with lances and ranged weapons (bows and javelins initially, but eventually small swivel guns and firearms).

Sources:

Charney, Michael W. Southeast Asian Warfare, 1300-1900.

Knaap, Gerrit. Headhunting, Carnage and Armed Peace in Amboina, 1500-1700. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. Volume 46, Issue 2.