Mithraism was a Roman cult that most scholars think originated sometime in the first century AD. It grew mainly amongst soldiers and traders, spanning the breadth of the Empire before rapidly disappearing in the age of Christianity. One must recognise that study of Mithraism has many significant problems: we have no Mithraic texts, no known Mithraic Authors, and no concrete proof for the vast majority of their theology. Thus when we seek to extrapolate any information about Mithraism, we are on very tenuous footing, with a number of possibilities which are all equally possible.

So then, Zoroastrian roots. The first scholar to really look at Mithraism on its own was Franz Valerie Cumont, a Belgian historian in the early twentieth century. His work Les mystères de Mithra was revolutionary and kick started the study of Mithraism, and was held in high regard for almost seventy years. It is in this work that the Zoroastrian link is made. Mitra was the Indo-Iranian God of contracts and light – a god of honesty, justice, and loyalty. He is mentioned in the Rigveda (Hindu scriptures written between 1,500 and 1,200 BC), but not in the earliest text of Zoroastrianism, the Gathas of Zoroaster. Mithra does however make his way into the Avesta, Yasht ten; this demonstrates how Mithra might fit into Zoroastrian cosmology – but is this Mithra related to the Mithras of Roman cult as Cumont contended?

That question has divided scholars since the First International congress of Mithraic studies, a conference in 1971 that examined Mithras from an interdisciplinary position for the first time. J. R. Hinnells and R. Gordon rejected Cumont’s ideas in the strongest possible terms, with Gordon reducing Cumont’s argument to four points:

i. Identification of the leontocephaline figure.

ii. The role of Jupiter when he is depicted in Mithraic contexts.

iii. The nature of Mithras’ cosmic role.

iv. Western evidence for moral dualism and saviour based theology.

Refuting each, he concluded that there was simply insufficient evidence to prove the link. Some historians, notably D. Ulansey, believe that the first evidence of the cult comes from Cilicia, southern Turkey:

They also offered strange sacrifices of their own at Olympus, and celebrated there certain secret rites, among which those of Mithras continue to the present time, having been first instituted by them. Plutarch. Pompey. 24.5

However, there are issues with this account. Mithras was never worshipped on mountain tops (Olympus was a local mountain) so far as we can tell, Mithraic temples (Mithraeums) do not appear in the archaeological record for another few hundred years, and Plutarch does not remark that this was the genesis of the widespread and well known cult, only that the traditions continued. This omission seems to indicate that this was a primarily a local phenomenon. Most scholars now think that the true origins were at best corruptions of the Zoroastrian Mithra, if not outright fabrications where only the name was borrowed and subsequently bastardised. For what it’s worth, my personal opinion is that the mysteries were inspired by this Mithra, but the similarities stopped there, there is no evidence in Mithraism to suggest meaningful engagement with Zoroastrian theology beyond a very surface level.

The question of Persian origins links into that of popularity. The main progenitor of Mithraism was the Roman army, as shown by C. M. Daniels in the proceedings of the congress. He charts the movements of legions who went to the east of the Empire, then returned to the west bringing Mithraic inscriptions and temples with them. The theology behind the cult is, as previously stated, mostly lost so it is very difficult to judge why people found it appealing. Here are a few possibilities:

• Exclusivity The cult was restricted in membership, with only men joining, and in relatively small numbers. Imagine something like the freemasons, with secret handshakes (Mithraists may have referred themselves as syndexioi: Those united by the handshake), secret rites, and a hierarchy one could climb to gain hidden knowledge. Similar groups still have a hold on the human psyche today with their promises of fellowship and esoteric wisdom.
• Oriental origins The cult promoted its alleged roots as a marketing gimmick. Celebrating their ‘ancient wisdom’ in a culture that revered the past in a similar way that we hope for the future today, Mithraists seem to have claimed they had access to great secrets of the past.
• Social pressure There is good evidence for upper class Romans devoting themselves to the mysteries whilst in the provinces – particularly on the Danube frontier – and then abandoning the cult on return to Rome. This implies that the social atmosphere was very much in favour of conversion, and once this pressure was lifted one could return to traditional Roman polytheism.
• Celestial power D. Ulansey has suggested in his book The Origin of the Mysteries of Mithras (1989) that Mithraism was based on an incredibly complex system of astronomical and astrological concepts that put Mithras in control of destiny. The idea of a god who could change will happen, protecting and benefitting his followers, is an understandably powerful draw. This is one of the arguments made for the (in my view) pointless and self-defeating comparison to Christianity and the role of Christ.
• They were right The possibility exists that Mithras is truly the most powerful god in the universe. Personally I hope this isn’t the case since as a Christian, Mithras probably isn’t a fan of my life choices.

With any luck I have provided a good overview on this topic, and I apologise that things are so uncertain. It is very sad that we’re lacking in the evidence we need to make more informed conclusions. I love this stuff, so if you have any further questions, please ask!

Suggested Reading

Anything by F. Cumont, R. Beck, J. Hinnells, R. Gordon, M. Clauss, and D. Ulansey.

Beck, R., The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun, 2006.

Cumont, F., Les mystères de Mithra, 1903.

Hinnells, J. R. eds., Mithraic Studies: Proceedings of the first International Congress of Mithraic Studies, Volumes I and II, 1975.

Ulansey, D., The Origin of the Mysteries of Mithras, 1989.