There is quite a bit out there about how thinkers, novelists, and philosophers considered time in the Enlightenment. I attended a research workshop that, I must admit felt like I was watching paint dry. So you might find some luck poking around that sort of thing.

I can point you to more specific readings about how medieval thinkers thought about the progression of time. Otto of Freising's History of the Two Cities interprets the progression of history as a conflict between the Two Cities of Augustinian theology. Bede also wrote a book on time, but it focuses quite a bit on the reckoning of time. That said, I think you'll find that this is an incredibly important topic for medieval philosophers who examined time.

Galison's Einstein's Clock's, Poincaré's Maps might be of interest to you, as might Emily Thomas's Absolute Time: Rifts in Early Modern British Metaphysics.

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