From the dawn of civilization until the rise of artillery, walls were essential to city defense. How did walls evolve technologically over this time? Would the walls of a Renaissance-era city be fundamentally more "advanced" than the walls of an ancient one?

by Vallvaka

I'm mostly referring to the evolution of technology that went into the construction of walls, rather than the evolution of specific designs that emerged to counter military threats of a certain time period. However I realize they go hand in hand.

AshkenazeeYankee

Yes! In early 1500s, there's a pretty remarkable change in the designs of fortresses which lasts right into the late 18th century, when increasingly powerful artillery makes large-scale fortifications impractical: the bastion fort, aka the trace italienne, today often called a "star fort". This marks a significant departure from the style of medival fortresses, which usually have round towers and square corners. This is not so good for either defending from, or defending against, gunpower weapons. Instead, the star fort design creates overlapping fields of defensive fire, and has fewer "blind spots" where a cannon can attack from without being easily enfiladed. Early examples were made of masonry in the fashion of older fortifications, but later examples are built mainly of earthworks, because it was realized that earthworks will plastically deform to absorb the kinetic energy of roundshot, instead of shattering like masonry will.

​

Bastion forts are a fundamentally early modern innovation, and were well-suited for defending against gunpowder weapons. Even in the later 18th century, as larger urban centers and better artillery made large-scale fortifications (an entire walled city) obsolete, star forts continued to be built as stand-alone military installations defending strategic chokepoints. Fort McHenry in Baltimore Harbor is a good example of this type of later smaller bastion fort, intended as a strong-point rather than an set of ravelins encircling an entire city.