So yesterday was the mawlid, the Islamic celebration of the birth of Prophet Muhammad. Though nowadays I spend it with sleeping, when I was a child I often followed night mawlid parades, where a bunch of people walking down the streets played music and recited praises to the prophet but I digress. Let's talk about Ottoman mawlid ceremony, specifially in the late 18th to 19th century

According to Selaniki Mustafa Efendi, the Ottoman mawlid ceremony is made 'official' in 10 February 1588, when Sultan Murad III ordered the burning of oil lamps and the recitation of mawlid poems. However, the institutionalization of the ceremony protocols probably happened in the late 18th century. The ceremony is conducted in the morning of mawlid, usually in Sultan Ahmed mosque, but by the 19th century other mosques were also used, for example in 1827 the ceremony is conducted in Nusretiye Mosque. The ceremony is as follows:

First, different groups from the palace arrived at the mosque in a particular order. The Chief Judges of Rumelia and Anatolia (Sadreyn-i Muhteremeyn), and high-ranking jurists (mevali-i izam) and professors of high-ranking madrassas (müderrisin) sits on the cushions reserved for them to the right of the prayer-niche (mihrab) to consolidate the position of the Şeyhülislâm, who is to arrive the mosque later and sit in front of the mihrab. On the other side, the group composed of viziers, sit on the prayer rugs reserved for them to the left side of the mihrab, near to the Grand Vizier (Sadrâzâm), who is to sit down in front of the mihrab next to the Şeyhülislâm. Following the viziers, expanding to the left are the state officials in the following order: The High Admiral (Kaptan-ı Derya), the Commander of Janissaries (Yeniçeri Ağası), the Minister of Finance (Defterdâr Efendi), the Standard-bearer (Miralem Ağa), the Chief Gatekeepers (Kapucubaşı Ağalar), the Commander of the Sipahi (Sipâhi Ağası), the Sword-bearer (Silahdâr Ağası), the Chief of Logistics (Cebecibaşı), the Chief Gunner (Topçubaşı), the Head of the Carriage Drivers (Arabacıbaşı), the commander of the Six Cavalry Divisions (Bölükât-ı Erbaa), the Inspector General of the Sacred Funds of the Two Holy Mosques (Hazine-i Haremeyn Müfettişi), Clerks (Haremeyn muhasebecileri), their junior clerks (halîfe) and treasurers (kîsedâr). On the other hand, officers of the Janissaries like the Zağarcıbaşı and Saksoncubaşı sit expanding to the right side of the mosque, from pulpit to the lectern backwards. A descendant of the prophet (Nakîbü’l-Eşrâf Efendi) has an exclusive place at the right corner of the mosque in a green tent, and he sits there alone surrounded by his band of ushers with green turbans.

After every officials are in their place, the Grand Vizier and the Şeyhülislâm arrive and place themselves in front of the mihrab. The Grand Vizier is accompanied by the Secretary of the State (Reîsülküttâb), the Chief Usher (Çavuşbaşı Ağa), secretaries of the Imperial Council (Tezkireci Efendiler), the secretary of the Grand Vizier (Mektûbî Efendi) and the ushers and aghas of the Imperial Council (Dîvân-ı Hümâyun çavuş ve ağaları), meanwhile, all of those present in the mosque stand up. The Secretary of the State places himself right across the Grand Vizier, and secretaries of the Imperial Council and the Grand Vizier’s secretary sit to the left of him. The Master of Protocol (Teşrifâtî Efendi) and his junior clerks and treasurers bring incensory and put them in front of the Grand Vizier, the Şeyhülislâm and the viziers. Surah al-Fath (chapter 48 of the Qur’an) is then recited in the lodge for the chanters (müezzin mahfili). After the Surah finished being recited, the Sultan then arrives at the mosque with the officers of his households and places himself on his own platform, which is royal lodge (hünkâr mahfili). As a sign informing that the Sultan arrives, the curtain of the lodge is raised and all of those present in the mosque stand up. At that point, the Sultan partially shows his face or only his turban, after the curtain is closed every group sits once again. The Master of Protocol continues to stand and waits the order of the Grand Vizier, after his sign, he sits on the floor too. Right after that, the ceremony begins and each of the shaykh, Chief shaykh of Ayasofya (Ayasofya Camii Şeyhi), Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Sultan Ahmed Camii Şeyhi) and the third one who is on duty for that day (Nöbetçi Şeyh), goes up to the lectern, while sixty Halberdiers (Zülüflü Baltacıyân) serve rose water, beverages and incensory to the high-ranking viziers and scholars. The shaykhs preaches a sermon, and goes down respectively. While each of them is going down, he is awarded by the Chief of the Black Eunuchs of the Palace (Dârüssaade Ağası) with a robe of sable fur. After finishing the last sermon, muezzins of the mosque recite a hymn in praise of the Prophet in the mobile platform established for the ceremony and then another fifteen musicians recite a chant. Subsequent to these, the First Mawlid Reciter of (Mevlidhân-I Evvel) of the Sultan goes up to the lectern and recite a part of Süleyman Çelebi’s mawlid poem Vesîletü’n-Necât and after going down is also awarded with a robe of honor. Aftwerwards, two hundred Halberdiers advance carrying trays loaded with sweetmeats and beverages. The Zağarcıbaşı and Saksoncubaşı immediately take action and serve sweetmeats and beverages to the Grand Vizier and the Şeyhülislâm. Afterwards, the Second Mawlid Reciter (Mevlidhân-ı Sânî) goes up to the lectern and recites a certain couplet from the Vesîletü’n-Necât, in which all the people who are present in the mosque stand up. While everyone remains standing, Müjdecibaşı, who hides behind the curtain in the royal lodge until that moment, appears and goes to the Grand Vizier in company with the Master of Protocol. His duty in the ceremony is to convey the official letter of the Sharif of Mecca, which mentions the pilgrims are safe. By the sign of the Grand Vizier, the Secretary of the State takes the letter, goes to the royal lodge and read it aloud there. After this procedure, the Chief of the Black Eunuchs of the Palace are decorated with fur, while the Secretary of the State are awarded with robe. The response of the Sultan to the Sharif is delivered to Müjdecibaşı, who immediately go to Damascus. In the meantime, dates from Medina is served to the Grand Vizier in a silver tray. After taking one or two dates and offering Şeyhülislâm, he calls the Master of Protocol to distribute the rest of them to the high-ranking officers and scholars. Following this procedure, the Second Mawlid Reciter of the Sultan completed his recitation and after being awarded with a robe of honor, he gives the lectern to the Third Mawlid Reciter of the Sultan (Mevlidhân-ı Sâlis). While he is reciting, trustees of Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Ayasofya and some other mosques serves sweetmeats to the Grand Vizier, the Şeyhülislâm and other viziers respectively. After the Third Mawlid Reciter’s finishing the recitation, he is awarded with a robe of honor too. Thus the ceremony ends and everyone returns to their home. However, the Grand Vizier, the Şeyhülislâm, the Chief Judges of Rumelia and Anatolia, the Minister of Finance, the Secretary of the State, the Chief Usher, the Chief of Logistics, the Chief Gunner and the Head of the Carriage Drivers all waited for the Sultan outside of the mosque. After the Sultan appears, they give a salute to him and while the Sultan comes back to the Palace in company with the Commander of Janissaries and the Chief Gatekeepers, they also finally depart from the mosque.

Afterwards, state officials distributed money to onlookers and people who followed the ceremony. Indeed, the ceremony provided the populace with yet another occasion where they could see their sultan and participate in a public event. In a way, the ceremony recreated the atmosphere of the Palace in the public. The sultan’s entry into and exit from the mosque were conspicuous public events where he displayed his generosity and power by the lavishness of his procession and the coins distributed to onlookers. The ceremony inside the mosque, on the other hand, hid the sultan behind a screen, and rendered him inaccessible, just like as he would be in his Palace. The close observance of the order and rank of those who took part in the ceremony was also a reaffirmation of the court’s organization. The direct presence of state officials also meant that people could directly present their petitions to be read by the corresponding officials. Additionally, school students and their teachers, immigrants, and charitable foundations were also awarded with money. For example in 1845 students of the Mekteb-i Maarif are awarded by 15,000 piasters and their professor, Rusçuklu Ali Efendi is decorated. In 1877, following the influx of Crimean and Circassian immigrants, some 49,000 piasters are donated to the immigrants

Week 107

 

On November 4^th 1919 the Italian people could celebrate the first anniversary of the signature of the armistice between Italy and Austria-Hungary - “The Victory which conquered peace and vindicated right”, as Mussolini's Popolo d'Italia announced in a somewhat dignified tone.

It had been the loathsome Cagoia, Francesco Saverio Nitti, the “enemy of the combatants” - as he was known once again, after D'Annunzio's expedition to Fiume, despite failing to provoke a Ministerial crisis, had definitely ended the short lived truce with the new Ministry and reignited the fire of the “national” and Nationalist press – to introduce the new festivity (not yet a National Festivity – the celebration earned its greater status only on October 23^rd 1922, R.d. published October 26^th 1922, in preparation for a new attempt at a grand National reconciliation, which could not take place due to the schedule conflicts with another Roman event). In Nitti's mind, the celebration of victory was to serve as a symbolic moment in that process of national reconciliation and social pacification which was to be the last and most decisive stage of Italy's victorious war and open the way to a return to normalcy of the Italian State.

As the new Prime Minister explained on September 13^th 1919 – the day after D'Annunzio's occupation of Fiume – appealing to the Chamber in order to rapidly define and conclude with a vote the public debate over the proceedings of the “Royal inquest Committee over the Italian withdrawal from Isonzo to Piave” (that is, the “Caporetto inquest”) which had been published by Nitti a few weeks before, the debate had come at proper time, and it was now time to end it.

No one can complain that their freedom of speech has been restricted, no one can complain that the debate has been too narrow; every point of view has been addressed.

I am truly glad that this discussion took place. It had been nearing us like a storm which we, who have supported the cause of war, had good reason to be wary of. Yet the debate has reached a serene conclusion […] since everyone has acknowledged […] that the largest mass of the Italians, that our people, in this terrible endeavor, which decided of our salvation and of our fate, have been equal to their task, and that our army accomplished its feats in a magnificent fashion.

This is enough for us.

That mistakes were made, that individual faults existed, I dare say, is indifferent to the Nation. We will investigate those responsibilities; but we must acknowledge that the endeavor was a success […]

We all have our divergences, our different views […] different feelings; but one thing alone was necessary: for the people of Italy, which the Army represents, to come out of this debate brighter, nobler and greater. […]

And the fact that the debate had focused on the individual and technical responsibilities rather than on the political conflict between interventionists and neutralists, socialists and “national” groups, was by itself proof that the Nation had found in the consciousness of her victory the strength needed to heal her wounds and return to peace.

The truth is that Victory healed everything! In any great collective endeavor there always is an extraordinary number of mistakes and I can't say that other peoples have made fewer than we did. The truth is that we won, and Victory cured us all! In any collective endeavor only one thing matters: success. Now, our endeavor has been a success.

Italy, for centuries held captive of so many peoples, persecuted among the nations of Europe, Italy, for the first time, has seen upon her radiant front shine the light of victory, of great victory, of the greatest victory of all the European armies, and such a victory – you can believe it, it's not just rhetorics – has healed every single mistake committed in the immense endeavor: errors from your side, errors from our side, errors from all sides, yet errors where one thing alone stood triumphant: the steadiness and fortitude of the Italian people, at last tested and proven together after fifteen centuries, at last victorious in front of the World!

Nothing can diminish the greatness of our victory. And, if there is one thing which saddens me, that is the behavior of certain partisans of the war who […] proclaim that, if a part of our ideals is yet unaccomplished, then our victory has not been achieved. […]

[The] undeniable results of the war can't be diminished and, if we come out of it in a state of distress, internal fractions, with major economical difficulties, in need of hard labor to restore ourselves, still we find ourselves newer, stronger, better, since […] manifold are the lessons of morality, but the world's moral lesson is in the end just one: those who win are right! […]

Compared to Nitti's speech, the Royal Decree (n. 1888, passed in Rome, October 19^th 1919; published October 22^nd 1919) was a rather short and parsimonious one.

Victor Emmanuel III, by God's grace and thanks to the will of the Nation, King of Italy […] upon proposal of the Prime Minister, Minister of Interior; we have said and decree:

The day 4^th of November is declared a festivity.

 

With the vote of confidence of July 14^th 1919, coming on the score of food riots and at the eve of a general strike proclaimed by the Official Socialists, Nitti's new Government had indeed secured an official recognition for its policy of national pacification. The vote itself though, large as it had been, had come with more than a few words of caution.

[…] such applause – admonished Antonio Casolini on July 13^th 1919, speaking of the fairly positive reception of Undersecretary for Supplies Murialdi's speech – should not be taken as expression of the true and sincere sentiments of the Chamber, that, in these recent times, has developed an habit of excessive applause.

According to Casolini, Nitti had been too quick in adopting measures intended to return the nation to its ordinary state; “the abolition of censorship”, in special manner, had been “the main cause of the rapid spread of disorders”. Conversely, Nitti had been “hesitant and unsure” in preventing and anticipating the unleashing of popular unrest. But Casolini, after the many poor displays offered during the war, had “no confidence in the Ministry of Supplies” either, even if he expressed his hopes that the new Minister of Industry, Dante Ferraris, could do something about it.

The representative from Catanzaro had indeed a long list of grievances (some more and other less to the point) to share with the Ministry, mostly concerning the relations between the Supply and Transportation administration and the Italian South – and especially during the tenure of the Milanese industrialist Silvio Crespi. From the delivery of spoiled grains to his district (“rotten, foul, full of bugs and worms, rejected even by animals”, which “had to be taken in because the railroads were complaining”), to the indifference of the Ministry for his denunciation of shipments being systematically lost in Naples. From the inadequate action of the public authorities during the influenza pandemics, where “any provision from the government was absent” and most of the relief effort had been provided by the American Red Cross – an influenza the spread of which, argued Casolini, might have been caused by the poor quality of supplies reserved for the region – to the miserable situation of infrastructure and transportation (“in the mountain towns, there was no way of moving out dried chestnuts, which would have earned a good price in Northern Italy”).

And last – continued Casolini – I have to call the Government's attention upon the matter of pensions and assistance for war invalids and families of fallen soldiers. It's a great source of discomfort within our towns […] The poor have yet, after years, to see the definition of their [bureaucratic] practices.