The extent of deistic beliefs and religious skepticism in the early republic era is hard to measure. There was considerable legal and social pressure for people to keep quiet about any doubts they might have about the validity of Christianity. Protestant clergy also tended to play up the ubiquity of deism in order to portray religion as being under threat and spur people to greater piety. As a result, scholars have heavily debated how prominent heterodox beliefs were.

Likely, deism and religious skepticism were not widespread. However, because these views were controversial, they tended to have an oversized impact on public life. We now know deism existed among both social elites and those of more modest means, though most of the recorded deists and religious skeptics we know of were white men.

Before the American revolution, deism and religious skepticism were thought to be fairly common among young men in the Virginia aristocracy. Episcopal Bishop William Meade observed of the period that “in every educated young man of Virginia whome I met, I expect to find a skeptic, if not an avowed unbeliever.” This may have been an exaggeration, but there was real concern that the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg was inculcating a deistic view among its students. Thomas Jefferson, probably the founder most known for his unorthodox religious views, came out of this social milieu.

People without elite education could also become deists. Revolutionary War hero Ethan Allen claimed he had become a deist using only “untutored logic, Sallies of a mind nursed principally, in the Mountanous wilds of America [SIC].” Allen’s book, Reason: The Only Oracle of Man, argued in favor of deistic belief, and made him a very controversial figure.

There was an organized deistic movement. Elihu Palmer of New York founded a deistic society in the early nineteenth century. Palmer published a paper, Temple of Reason, about deism from 1801 to 1803, though it had trouble getting many subscriptions. Palmer does not appear to have had widespread success, but there were at least enough people interested in what he had to say that he managed to give a series of lectures on his views.

Yet deists trying to create their own religious movement was not the norm. It is worth noting that holding deistic views was not necessarily incompatible with Christianity. Jefferson continued to attend church services and considered himself a Christian. George Washington may have held private deistic views, but was an Episcopal vestryman. Benjamin Franklin made a point of supporting organized religion, which he saw as conducive to the social order.

The line between deism, skepticism, and religion can also be really blurry. Freemasonry held a view of the universe that God was an architect, akin to the kind of deity seen in deism. Freemasons had a large membership all over the United States, and included a significant number Protestant clergy.

In Massachusetts, the established state church gradually became unitarian, rejecting the idea that Jesus was God. John Adams, who strongly supported the state-run church, had views almost identical to Jefferson on theology. If Unitarianism is seen as akin to deism, then these views were common in the northeast, but almost all Unitarians of the period would have considered themselves Christians.

In short, deism would have been rare to encounter in person but well-known as an idea. If you define unorthodox religious beliefs broadly enough to include Unitarians and Freemasons, then it would make up a sizable minority of the population. In no way though should deism be seen as a viewpoint that only a few elites held.

Suggested Resources:

Grasso, Christopher. Skepticism and American Faith: From the Revolution to the Civil War. New York: Oxford University Press, 2018.

May, Henry F. Enlightenment in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 1976.

Porterfield, Amanda. Conceived in Doubt: Religion and Politics in the New American Nation. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2012.