(1/2)
Introduction to the OB period and Mari
Hammurabi inherited a relatively small kingdom from his father. In the early part of his reign, southern Mesopotamia was dominated by the kingdom of Elam ruled by King Siwe-palar-ḫuppak, whose capitals were located at Anšan and Susa in Iran. Syria and northern Mesopotamia were dominated by the kingdom of Yamḫad, based at Aleppo. As a letter from the time notes,
No king is truly powerful just on his own. 10-15 kings follow Hammurabi of Babylon, as many follow Rim-Sin of Larsa, as many follow Ibal-pi-el of Ešnunna, and as many follow Amut-pi-el of Qatna, but 20 kings follow Yarim-Lim of Yamḫad.
Over the course of his lifetime, Hammurabi not only eliminated Elamite hegemony in Mesopotamia but also conquered and annexed rival kingdoms like Ešnunna and Larsa, establishing the state we call the Old Babylonian empire.
Hammurabi gets a great deal of attention in history classes and textbooks, however, so we shall turn instead to the city of Mari in Syria. Mari was located on the west bank of the Euphrates and benefited greatly from its role as a nexus of trade between Mesopotamia and the Levantine coast. Mari was already an important city by the Early Dynastic period (ca. 2900-2300 BCE), but it rose to international prominence in the Ur III period (ca. 2100-2000 BCE). By the reign of Yaḫdun-Lim in the 19th century BCE, Mari controlled a considerable territory. Unfortunately for Mari, its alliance with the powerful kingdom of Yamḫad soured, and the assassination of Yaḫdun-Lim’s son and successor Sumu-Yamam provided the perfect opportunity for the Assyrian king Šamši-Adad I to sweep in and seize control of Mari. Šamši-Adad preferred to rule from his capital of Šubat-Enlil (modern Tell Leilan), so he installed his son Yasmaḫ-Addu as governor of the city. One gets the impression that poor Yasmaḫ-Addu never quite measured up to his father’s approval, and there are numerous bitter letters to and from his father.
About the matters that father wrote to me, “Now you - how long must we keep on guiding you? Are you still a child and not an adult? Is there no hair on your cheeks? How much longer will you not take charge of your house?” This is what father wrote to me on a couple of occasions. Am I really not able to take charge of my house and garner respect? But ever since I was young and growing up by father, I have been distant from my father’s heart…
Furthermore, father wrote to me, “Can you not observe your brother, who leads vast armies? Yet you cannot take change of your palace and house!”
The death of Šamši-Adad enabled the rise of Zimri-Lim, the “son” (but more likely grandson) of Yaḫdun-Lim, who had fled during the conquest of Mari. Yasmaḫ-Addu saw the writing on the wall and fled the city when Zimri-Lim appeared at the head of an army to recapture his ancestral home. The reign of Zimri-Lim in the 18th century BCE is the best known period of the history of Mari, largely due to the nearly 20,000 tablets excavated at Mari. The reign of Zimri-Lim was a time of prosperity for Mari, and the king established truces with Hammurabi of Babylon and Yarim-Lim of Yamḫad. Unfortunately, for reasons that are still poorly understood, Hammurabi sacked Mari in 1762 BCE and plundered the palace. The city was not quite wiped out, but it never regained its prominent role, and by the Late Bronze Age it was overshadowed by the major Syrian cities like Ugarit, Carchemish, and Tunip.
Kingship in Mari
Most rulers in the Old Babylonian period took the Akkadian title šarrum (“king”). Less popular titles for kings included rabûm (lit. “great one”) and the West Semitic mālikum. As the letter I quoted above notes, “no king is truly powerful just on his own.” The Old Babylonian period was a fascinating time of rapidly shifting alliances, and a kingdom could double in size or disappear entirely in a matter of months.
The proper route to the throne was for a son to succeed his father, but this was often not the case in the time of Hammurabi, and many rulers came to the throne by usurping the previous occupant. To quote a letter from Sumu-Lanasi of Abi-ili to Zimri-Lim,
Do you remember when in a garden you and I, my lord, with the ruler of Carchemish in Muzullum, our decision having been taken, we got to talking. Now, the god of your father brought you to the throne of your father. But when I arrived at my father’s house, Yumraṣ-El was ruling in my town! I respected you (i.e. your peace) and did not force him out of my throne. Now, the god of my lord Zimri-Lim is strong and brought me to the throne of my father’s house. As in previous days my father paid allegiance to your father Yaḫdun-Lim, I too shall pay allegiance to you.
Once on the throne, a new king demanded loyalty oaths from his governors, diviners, top administrators, and members of the royal household. These oaths were administered to men and women alike by royal scribes while other scribes witnessed the oaths. A brief snippet as an example:
If my lord Zimri-Lim has sent me to inspect or observe spoils or the like, I have not taken, will not take, will not steal, will not sell for money, will not leave it behind, and will not give it to any person whatsoever as a favor or bribe. Should anyone who is superior to another take grain or wool and I see it, hear about it, or am told about it, I will not tolerate it. That very day I will tell or write to my lord Zimri-Lim about it.
Many of the kings of the ancient Near East were very fond of hymns in their honor, and Zimri-Lim was no exception. After taking the throne, Zimri-Lim requested that the palace performers create an epic poem about his deeds. The poem is too long to quote in its entirety, but it emphasizes the martial prowess of Zimri-Lim and the favor of the gods.
I exalt the supreme king,
(the god) Enlil’s enemies he makes his own.
admist the Ḫabur and Euphrates (rivers),
where (the god) Addu gives his judgment,
he thunders, scattering his enemy’s kin,
and spreads his fame to the four corners (of the world)…
He cuts the enemy as if a rope knot,
and the earth drinks the blood of heroes.
(The goddess) Annunitum goes on his right,
while shining Addu thunders away,
thunders away, smashing the spear of enemies,
drenching his venom over the land.
Zimri-lim - smasher of the enemy’s spear,
who drenches his venom over his enemies…
Unlike the kings of Egypt or some of the kings of the Akkadian and Ur III periods, however, the kings of Mari were never worshiped as god-kings.
There will be a lot more to say, and my contribution is rather a niche one, but, while you wait for fresh answers to your query, you might like to review this earlier response of mine, which deals with the ways in which Hammurabi used law codes and debt forgiveness to political ends: