Spanish, Italian, and French are all descended from Latin - that is, they're basically just Latin, which has evolved in different ways over the centuries. Portuguese and Romanian are also descended from Latin (as well as various other languages in those countries - Occitan, Catalan, Galician, Sardinian, etc). They are all called "Romance" languages since they're descended from Latin, which was spoken in Rome.

English isn't directly derived from Latin. English is a Germanic language, and it's related to German, Dutch, and the Scandinavian languages. If you go back to Old English (before 1066), it's much more obviously a Germanic language. In 1066, the French-speaking Normans invaded, so after that, English was heavily influenced by the French-speaking rulers of England. Now it's almost a mixture of Germanic and Romance elements, but it's mostly just some fancy vocabulary that comes from Latin. In your everyday life you can speak whole English sentences with only (or almost only) Germanic words - like this sentence! (Only "Germanic" and "sentence" come from Latin.)

The Latin and Germanic languages are actually related, but more distantly. They're part of the "Indo-European" language family, which probably originated many thousands of years ago in the area of modern Russia or Ukraine. Indo-European speakers then spread west into Europe and south and west into central Asia and India. Most of the languages in Europe are descended from Indo-European. In addition to Latin and Germanic languages, descendants include Baltic (Lithuanian, Latvian), Slavic (Polish, Russian, Czech, Serbian), the different kinds of Gaelic, and also separate families for Greek, Albanian, and Armenian. The ones who went south developed into an Indo-Aryan branch, including Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, Bengali, and lots of other languages in modern India and Pakistan. So despite being a continent away, English and Hindi are actually relatives.

Arabic belongs to a completely different language family, which is not related to Indo-European. It's part of the Afroasiatic family - as the name suggests, these languages are found in north Africa and southwest Asia. Just like Indo-European has many different branches, Afroasiatic has branches too, including the Semitic branch, which is where you find Arabic. Arabic is very closely related to another Semitic language, Hebrew. The thing that distinguishes Semitic languages (and some other Afroasiatic languages) is that they have root words that consist of three letters, and you can add vowels or other patterns of consonants to make new words. So for example, "k-t-b" in Arabic has to do with writing. "Kitab" is a book, "kutub" means books, "maktab" is an office, "yaktub" means "he is writing", and so on. It's a completely different way of constructing the language than we see in English and other Indo-European languages.

You're right that there is a lot of Arabic influence Spanish, for example, since Arabic-speakers controlled parts of Spain for over 700 years. But Spanish-speakers and Arabic-speakers didn't really live together and intermingle as much as English- and French-speaking people did in England; I'm simplifying a bit, but they followed different religions, unlike English and French Christians, and French and English were already related as fellow Indo-European languages, unlike Spanish and Arabic. So Arabic didn't have the same influence on Spanish as French did on English. But Spanish did borrow a lot of vocabulary from Arabic. Arabic did replace Romance languages elsewhere though - there were Latin-derived languages in North Africa where Arabic is spoken now. And on Malta, their form of Arabic is considered a separate language entirely. Maltese is essentially Arabic written with the Latin alphabet.

Hopefully that helps a little bit. I suppose we don't usually deal with linguistics here! There is a similar sub called r/asklinguistics where they could go into much more detail, if you want to ask there as well.