Thanks for doing the AMA! The subtitle of your book is "Race, Status, and Identity.." What kind of activities did free black people engage in that improved their social status? And - follow up- was that status recognized by whites locally or did they gain status only among other black people??

Hello! Thank you for answering our questions. I've read that in the lead-up to the American Civil War, Southern states made it legally more difficult to free slaves, and for free black persons to live there - is this true?

I've heard that slaves got treated differently based on skin tone, or to put it bluntly, the paler you were the better. How much of that is true? And how did it show? And perhaps just as important, does that still show itself in modern America?

Just for info I'm not an American and have tried to formulate my question as sensitive as possible according to my limited English (not my native language). Just curious.

What's something you wish more Americans understand about race and slavery in America? How inaccurate is the average high school's curriculum on these topics?

Hi! Thanks for coming out and answering our questions. I know that the term "miscegenation" was invented during the American Civil War, but that concern over racial mixing goes back much further in colonial history in the Americas. While the law became the infamous "one drop rule," do we know if early American colonists made more subtle distinctions on race and heritage?

When Liberia was established, how were free African Americans persuaded to go? Was coercion or deception involved?

I've seen declarations making a big deal of free people of African descent owning slaves in the pre civil war south. How widespread was this if it actually existed? Where people of color that were free able to move in society to the point where they could conduct business, including purchasing and selling of slaves?

Hi Dr. Marks, I have been taking Eric Foner's Civil War and Reconstruction class online from ColumbiaX. We have been learning about the origins of the Civil War, which he states really begin to come to the forefront in the aftermath of the US-Mexican War and the westward expansion of the US and manifest destiny. My question(s) is at what point was the US Civil War inevitable and how should the period from the Revolutionary War to the Civil War be taught?

Were also native americans subjected to racism and slavery in the americas? If so, to what degree?

I'm interested in the legal rights of enslaved and free persons. The major issue is that enslaved people had customary rights to cohabitate, marry, and trade with one another, but technically since they were enslaved people they had no legal rights and were merely extension of the person of the master. How did free black people complicate this already complicated relationship? Could a free black person sue a white person for a tort, such as battery or conversion, in the South? In the North? In Brazil? What other interesting contours of this issue do you know of?

I am interested in claims that the slavery was abolished, its essence never really died although was transformed. I’d like to hear your thoughts on whether or not private prison labor can be considered modern day slavery and if so, some history of how it happened.

Were slaves in the states ever become aware of the Haitian revolt and independence? (Especially for those near the Gulf)

Hi Dr. Marks. In Latin America, there were quilombos or maroon runaway slave communities. Jane Landers has written about them in Colonial Latin America. What about runaway slave communities in Colonial North America? Could you recommend some resources on that topic? Thank you.

Hi Dr Marks and thanks so much for dropping by. I recall reading about so-called compassionate slave holders that treated their slaves "well." Did such slave holders exist, and how did their treatment of their slaves differ from those who were considered brutal?

More generally, did the general level of hardship and brutality slaves experienced vary by state? Which states were considered among the best/worst? Thanks again!

In Colson Whitehead’s Underground Railroad he describes people having their homes searched by neighbors. If a slave was found the residents could be dragged out and hanged with no intervention with the justice system. Did that really happen?

How did slavery in Latin America compare to their more northern counterparts? Was it harsher or were there more opportunities for freedom?

Im not trying to be rude but what makes your book special?

No offense. I mean this with respect

Hi John, thanks for doing this!

I know that much of the criticism around the 1619 Project is politically motivated, but I remember thinking that characterizing the first Africans forcefully brought to Jamestown as slaves was weird. I thought I'd read they were actually only held as indentured servants for 10 years or so, and that explicit race-based slavery developed in North America over the following decades.

Maybe thay's nitpicky (or maybe I'm mis-remembering) but if I'm right that seems important, because there already was race-based slavery in the Americas that was explicitly not adopted for a while in the British colonies. It seems to me to obscure the economic factors that drove towards "real" slavery in the years after 1619. What do you think?

I've learned that, on Lexington green at the start of the American Revolution, a slave named Prince Estabrook stood with the militia there and faced down the regulars.

Was it unusual for a slave to take part in armed defense like this, and do we know much more about Prince?

Thanks so much for doing this AMA! I am a huge fan of Heather Andrea Williams' "Self-Taught" and similar books on the education of enslaved and free Black adults and children during slavery as it helped me think very differently about liberation through Black-led education. I always feel, though, like I'm missing so much. Are there any moments, anecdotes, or people related to education during the age of slavery that you wish more people (especially those of us in education history) knew about? Thanks!

Hello Dr. Marks, thank you for the AMA!

Are there any records of the patterns of English language acquisition among the first peoples taken into slavery from Africa? I think I can safely assume that no formal education of slaves took place, so there had to have been a large number at first with no English skills who relied on an interpreter for their orders.

Additionally, do we have any idea how many different linguistically distinct groups were originally taken from Africa and enslaved on the other side of the Atlantic?

And finally, what was the impact of the level of literacy and spoken English skills on the opportunities a newly freed former slave might have? Was there any common path for someone in that situation to learn to read and write if they couldn’t already?

Thank you for taking the time to do this AMA. In case it isn’t obvious my background is in linguistics and I have a familiarity with the modern history of BEV but don’t know much of anything regarding the history pre-20th century.

One question I've always had regarding the history of African-American people is: Was patriotism a sentiment one could find in some African American communities before, during, and after the American civil war? Did any slave or free black people find hope in the American ideals of liberty and equality found in the Constitution prior to the civil war?

I'm really interested in the whole topic about how much the European slave buyers encountered an established system of slavery. As far as I know, the African slaves were already enslaved by other African tribes as well as conquerors from the East. Since in the political discussions these days it is always mentioned that slavery wasn't an invention of the Europeans despite them being massive profiteers. So what's the background to all of this? I'd really like to know to give informed feedback when the topic comes up.

Thanks for doing this AMA!! I'm very interested in the dynamic of Christianity in antebellum understandings/justifications of slavery and abolition. What questions do you ask that you think lend the most useful answers in terms of the historical analysis of this dynamic? Are questions like "are abolitionists more or less Christian?" useful? How do you personally approach this topic?

Hey everyone thanks for so many amazing questions! I'm going to do my best to get to them all. I've gotta take a quick break to go pick up a birthday cake for my book, but I'll get back to it in about 30 minutes!

Two questions:

Firstly: From what I've read, laws against free blacks residing in a state meant the few black residents were actually fairly elite. South Carolina, for example, had stringent laws against free blacks but the few thousand free blacks that lived there were relatively well off. Of course, this was because if you weren't important enough you'd be expelled. But I've not been able to find much about the day to day lives of these small communities. What was it like being a black doctor or carpenter or businessman in antebellum Charleston? (Or any deep south city.) Why did they choose to stay? How did they operate their businesses? To what extent could they serve white clients vs their own communities?

Secondly: The entire black population of Argentina just... died out after the abolition of slavery. Or perhaps were killed, I am not clear on what happened. Everything I have read on this, from Argentine sources to foreign ones, seems to be inadequate.

Everyone agrees they existed as a significant minority of the population when slavery was abolished. Yet the population sharply declined after abolition and is basically non-existent today (.33% of the population, of which a majority are 20th century African immigrants and their descendants). The freed population does not appear to have significantly mixed into the general population by genetic tests either. While I'm aware conditions for free blacks in a lot of Latin America were bad, I'm not aware of other cases where the population didn't survive. Sometimes they blended into the general population but in that case you see a significant genetic legacy. What happened to the free Afro-Argentinians?

How did US slavery compare to Classical slavery of the Romans. I am aware that the conditions in the US changed over time, so if you had to pick a point in US history, I would prefer one you felt most comfortable with.

I know many historians hate wild speculation, but I am curious if there's some alternate world where we came out of Reconstruction with much greater equality.

Racism was deep and widespread even among abolitionists, but when the Civil War ended we did have a lot of African Americans in more visible free, public roles--most obviously veterans--plus the fairly quick turn to enfranchisement, the election of representatives, senators, etc.

Was the reversal of this initial progress inevitable? What were the biggest lost opportunities?

Were there any whites who operated within the bounds of slavery specifically to help slaves? Like purchasing them and then freeing them? I feel the answer is likely no, but this is an era of history that's not my forte.

I just came across this post. I spent my morning doing 3rd grade homeschooling with my son. I don't even know if this is a proper question or if you'll see it, but at what age do you think schools should start mentioning the actual history of slavery in the US? In my sons Social Studies work today, the lesson mentioned the first Africans in America being brought against their will to Jamestown, but basically painted them as indentured servants just like the Europeans who came with such status. A few paragraphs later, it mentions African Americans leaving the south en masse for the North and West because they faced some discrimination in the South, but then left it at that. I am torn because I believe if you're going to teach a kid about slavery you have to genuinely teach them about slavery, not just lightly brush over it and move along.

I'd love your take on the New York Times 1619 project. Mostly accurate, mostly wrong? Too much hype, or does it deserve more attention?

Hi! Thanks for the time you are dedicating to answering our questions!

Where the slaves in the US and Brazil aware of Haiti's slave revolts and their war for independence? Did anyone try to emulate the Haitian experience in the US or Brazil? If not, why?

We sometimes see black people (and white people as well) claiming that dreadlocks, breads and even turbans can't be used by white people without being considered cultural appropriation. History shows us, however, that all those examples were common in other non black societies. What's your opinion about their claim?

One thing that’s always interested me about black people in the United States is the large degree of Native American ancestry many have. Sometimes as much as a third to half among some people. How did this happen? What conditions led to this? And how often were these children born legitimately? (that even brings up more questions about the sad and unequal history of families under slavery)

How does the african slave trade compare to the slavery of history? The Romans, Egyptians,, Mongols, Greeks ,Ottomans etc? It was I believe not as brutal

Here's kind of a strange one. Are there reported cases of abolitionists, folks who helped to free slaves, and the like, expressing regret that they couldn't do more? There were millions of slaves in America at once; surely some of the good guys must have developed depression, become disillusioned, or just given up because of the enormity of what they were going up against.

There are trolls on Reddit that try to tie Judaism, Middle Eastern Islam, and African peoples themselves into the slave economy. The primary goal seems to be to absolve slave owning Americans, or at the very least muddy the waters with "everyone else was doing it, and the American South is no worse." What sources would be best utilized to dispel these arguments?

Thank you so much for doing this Dr. Marks, and congratulations on your new book release! I'll definitely be purchasing some copies for my family this Christmas.

Here's my question: In Haiti (and in other French colonies as well as France itself I believe), there were draconian rules restricting what Black people (especially Black women) could wear in public. It stemmed from white French citizens (especially slaveowners) feeling resentment at seeing wealthy Black families (especially slaveowners) dressing in the French style and displaying their wealth with jewelry. Punishments for violating these restrictions were severe. Did we see any similar on free Black people in the United States during slavery? Were there laws against what they could wear, lest they "presume" to present themselves as comparable to their white counterparts? I'm very familiar with restrictions on enfranchisement and freedom of movement for Black people, but I'm less aware of American restrictions on free Black bodies and freedom of expression. I'd love to hear anything on that front. Thank you again!

Could corporations own slaves?

If so, at what scale did corporations own slaves in the Americas and in the USA?

Thanks for doing an AMA! I recently watched Free State of Jones and had a question.Poor whites seemed to have the same status as slaves with the exception of being owned. Was it common for white males in the south to have the same realization that was had in the movie that, they were fighting to keep the social system of slave holders in power rather than for a greater cause?

I recently came across a document written by the "Blacks of New Haven City" in 1788 petitioning the Connecticut General Assembly for freedom, and listing the cruelties of slavery. Was this kind of petition common, especially in the days after the Revolutionary War?

Was it true that there were white slaves bc they had black ancestors? Not talking about the Irish indentured servants

This is awesome! Thanks for taking the time. My question is---was there any interaction between those free colonies and indigenous people of the area, and if so what was the nature? I've often heard the interactions between black people during the age of slavery and indigenous people and it seems to very wildly in how positive the interactions were.

Hi there! I've got about two questions, since studying this is being my graduate course at ECA-USP here in Brazil. One mildly analyzed thing, so far, is the rampant culture and oral history obliteration done by the white slaveowners both in North and South America and what is has left us - both the opening to believe whatever slaveowners recorded about african people and their descendants, truthful or not, and the communitarian confusion.

The last point I'll expand a bit here. That confusion is what I mean that happens in Brazil as well: the message for african descendants is that race/color doesn't matter, they are Brazilians first, race a farther second, unless of course they are Brazilian clearly descending from european countries, in which case they earn quite some benefits through merit. That splits the african and afro-descendant communities. I'm not even touching the point about the times when black people were "good negroes always ready to work till sundown", which changed a lot and quickly after they were freed to "scary people who will steal everything and will take your jobs". I mean, I'm more interested in asking about what you see from this white-mandated confusion and split within the afro community up there and what you guys have been doing, initiatives which aren't commonly known about and are working, like education programs and whatever you guys came up with, to fix it, both within your own community and in order to colab with Cuban/Caribbean and Brazilian communities (we still even have a lot of quilombos!)

As for the oral history obliteration, that had brought numerous problems and unfortunately a bit less solutions so far, especially regarding religion. Some problems are fairly obvious: Nigeria (let's call it the source), Cuba, Brazil all have "different" afro-based religions, while the US is by far the weakest one in that regard (which is why Cuban Santeria is what you guys usually seek out up there and the only other thing people associate is voodoo, ask James Bond). These differences have been fairly hard to be certain about and more so to "correct". The works of William Bascoe (16 cowries, IIRC university of Indiana) and Pierre Fatumbi Verger for instance show us some of the differences. At the same time, contact between these post-atlantic communities of researches is virtually non-existent. Not to mention that Yoruba language courses are non-existent and you learn as you pray harder lol. That being said, do you have some sort of hope that at least that front can be healed, so to speak?

One thing that I was never taught was how slavery (specifically the trade between west-coast Africa and USA) initally started?

There is mention of Kings selling their people off, but what's the validity to that and surely that would have created domestic conflicts for those Kings/rulers?

Would love to know. Great AMA. Thank you.

To what extent did conversion to Christianity affect black people's chances at freedom, and did this change the way Christian's felt about proselytizing?

Hi Dr. Marks. I had read most of Up From Slavery by Booker T. Washington (I should go back and finish it).

I remember being in awe of how... pragmatic he was, not dwelling on his setbacks, and the fervor he showed for racial uplift.

I'm not sure what my question is, but I guess:

Was this passion (for education, status growth, uplift, etc.) common among newly freed slaves?

Is Booker T. Washington simply one of the more well-known 'elites'? Or was he actually as integral of a leader as history makes him out to be?

Is there anything you would add? Just curious about any input you have.

Im not American so give me some leaway :)

As I understand, when slavery ended, the conditions of former slaves didn't necessarily improve as many stayed in their positions or fell into very hard times with lack of work/income.

New Deal was still decades away, so were there concentrated efforts to support former slaves (employment/healthcare/education etc.) in southern states? At what lengths were ex-slaves left to their own devices? Did support vary from state to state?

What’s your opinion on Thomas Holt’s “The problem of freedom”?

What kind of punishments were common for white folks helping free slaves ?

Hi Dr. Marks, thanks so much for doing this AMA! I've loved the questions and answers I've seen so far.

I think about the demographics of "slave country" in Africa a lot. What percent of the population was lost to slaves to be sold abroad each year? How was slaving populations year after year "sustainable"? Did families have many children, knowing that a few would inevitably end up as slaves? Did slavers "manage their stocks" like a fisherman would?

Year after year the demand for slaves grew, but I don't understand how they could keep providing slaves without completely destabilizing the population.

Hello! I am aware that the idea of the Wild West, cowboys and outlaws has been greatly distorted by movies and media (and I am frankly a victim of this as I am a huge fan of old spaghetti westerns). What I am curious about is the status of a black outlaw in the old west. Would other outlaws whether white, native or Mexican treat him as an equal partner in crime?

Hi Dr. Mark, one of my questions is did the industrial revolution help reduce slavery more than the civil war did? Also what kept the north from using slaves in factories/ industrial complexes?

After slavery was abolished; what did the free slaves do with their new freedom? Where did they go? How did they make a living? Etc.

I just came to the realization of how much biracial black people were very important to the advancement of black people after the civil war due to them either being more accepted by whites or having better opportunities. How often than not were biracial or multiracial black people a part of black liberation and what are some examples.

Given that many were performing strenuous labor was there generally sufficient caloric intake in the diet available to slaves or was malnutrition rampant?

Great ama, very thorough answers! Thank you!

Hello. I have a somewhat related question. In 1968 Wallace run in the presidential election on a segregationist platform. I've read to my surprise that he got the vote of not only old diehard white Southerners but also he was the most popular candidate among young men. Why was that? Is there any particular reason why young people voted for such a fossil of a man?

Even though the vast majority of slaves were black of african decent given that native americans were dying of disease I always hear that there were slaves that were white in the early colonization of America. Mainly irish. Were there any slaves from other parts of the world not just irish or west african? Were there any Slavic such as southern Slavic slaves in the Americas given the immense amount of southern Slavic slaves in the ottoman empire and islamic territories. At one point Slavic slaves would pass through portuguese markets and portugal had a huge influence on the atlantic slave trade given that most slaves went to Brazil. Also at what point did owning irish slaves become obsolete in the Americas?

Hi, I'm really happy you're doing this as I feel my knowledge in this area of history is not my strong point (As I am an Australian). This could be a pretty charged question but I assume that a lot of the questions you get surrounding this topic are similar.

Did modern day America adopt their "land of the free" and "freedom" ideologies due to this slavery era in history, or did this come prior due to their separation from England? Regardless of where this slogan of freedom comes from, do you find it kind of ironic considering their previous history or do you think this serves as a beacon of hope?

Thanks for your time! The Haitian Revolution must have been a terrifying thing for a slave owner to watch, and a hopeful thing for any slave that learned about it. What were some of the reactions from the slaves and slave owners to this event? Did owners try to suppress knowledge of the Revolution? Did states pass any laws in direct response to it?

Can you comment on African American migration to California. When it took place and what laws in California ultimately helped/hindered free Americans of color. What was life like in the early days of a progressive state. Was it better worse or no different then the rest of the country. Also, what was it like, legally and socially in California and the north east? We know the south got it wrong but what about the rest of the country?

What is your opinion about the African slave trade. That it was black kings and others that sold their countrymen to white people?

I know a little about marooner communities in Jamaica and in the Great Dismal Swamp in S. Carolina. You see a little bit about the community in Mississippi in The Free State of Jones. What was the S. American equivalent? Were they in swamps? Did the disappear into the hills or jungle? What was their relationship like with indigenous people?

Hi Dr Marks, thanks for doing an AMA.

Charleston was radically pro-slavery, the hotbed of secession and the location of where the Civil War started. What did the local free blacks think and do during that time period? Were any supportive at all?

Secondly I’ve found the slave narratives a fascinating insight into what life was like back then. Some people immediately dismiss it as unreliable as it was all recorded by white people and probably distorted. I’m curious how you view the narratives?

I’m currently spending some time on Martha’s Vinyard and was getting a local history lesson about Oak Bluffs and its place as one of the only vacation spots for black families through the early/mid 20th century.

For those families that had the means to travel, what options were open to black families in the southern US during Jim Crow?

Thanks!

Hello! Thank you for taking the time to answer questions! I’m curious to learn more about enslaved people in French/Spanish Louisiana, specifically people far upriver from New Orleans. I know French settlers held enslaved people in Ste. Genevieve, MO, and I assume there were French slaveholders on the Illinois side of the river as well. What happened to these enslaved people after the Louisiana purchase? Was there a French-speaking African American population in the area like there was near the Gulf Coast?

Thank you for taking the time to share your knowledge. Do you know of any interactions between the arab slave trade in africa and the atlantic slave trade? I read that the first muslims in america were african slaves brought over by Europeans. those muslims slaves would not legally be able to be enslaved as part of the arab slave trade as opposed to their other african counterparts. Also did the former islamic presence in Portugal and spain before the inquisition have any influence on the atlantic slave trade given that portugal and spain were responsible for alot of the atlantic slave trade?

Did slaves in Louisiana have any noticeable reaction from going from being ruled by the French Code Noir to the Spanish Código Negro to essentially having nothing protecting them as American slaves?

Tell us about the american redhats.

Hey thanks for doing this.

Do you feel something as simple as raising the income tax on higher earners could lead to drastic change in the US in regards to income inequality? I learned that black people are disproportionately affected by low income housing especially considering things like red lining, etc.

If you were running for president, what would be your main focal point?

Edit: Asking because it’d be interesting to get a historians perspective.

Hi John Mark! I have a few questions I hope you don't mind. So:

Army officers had bat-men or similar servants so did officers bring any slaves they own with them or purchased slaves while on campaign? Did they have similar battlefield roles with the bat-men such as bodyguards?

How did slaves view the opportunities opened to them by the American revolution such as being allowed in the army? Did they see action?

Also, I saw something about Fredrick Douglas being self emancipated. How does this happen?

Thank you for your research and thank you for answering our questions!

I have two questions that both deal with the lives of enslaved people.

First, I've heard of enslaved people buying their freedom. How would a slave have earned money? Hope common was it for a slave to have money of their own,and typically how would such money be spent?

The second is the assertion that slave owners would "breed" the "best" slaves. Is there truth in this, or is it largely myth?

Thanks in advance!

Do you have any opinions on writings like "Settlers" by J. Sakai?

Similarly, do you agree that Leftist political movements were instrumental in the fight for Civil Rights in the U.S.? Or has their work been overstated?

Hi John! Thanks for sharing your book and answering our questions!

I've read that in the late 17th and early 18th century, when the slave trade was still relatively small, there were less slave laws and generally more toleration towards slaves. Apparently with the growth of the slave population there were more destinctions being made between "white" and "black" society which lead to less toleration. Is this true and if yes could you please elaborate on the reasons for this development?

How do non African American Blacks feel about being included as "Blacks," especially if they don't share the same history of slavery?

Who decides which folks are included as Black or not? Have included groups changed over time?

Thank you I don't know much about it.

Good Morning!

What historical methods and sources can we use to research the black palenques and villages of runaway slaves in western Colombia?

I'm currently leading a r search team into the history of the municipality of Dosquebradas, Risaralda And while I know there were some small farms and bastions of runaway slaves in the area (Thanks to colony notarial notes and judicial causes) I have no way of pinpointing them or even evidence their existence. As a sort of secondary question: How can we incorporate the history of black slaves into the local history of an overwhelmingly mestizo community? What kind of vestiges can I use as pieces for an exhibition?

Are nearly all African Americans carrying the last names of slave owners? Hearing this turned my pride to shame at a young age.

Where there any unique art and music that black slaves bought from africa which they were able to preserve in the plantations and do we see a modern version of that today

I think we all know that Roger Taney's insane verdict in Dred Scott is evil on many levels, one of which being that it's completely ahistorical to claim that black people had never been citizens of the United States. Besides the black voters of New Jersey, what else can we say about the black citizens of the US before the 15th Amendment?

This is going to be a complicated question, I don't want to waste your time too much (I'm not even sure if an expert in one subject knows anything about that because it hasn't anything to do with America). At first I want to apologise if my English isn't good enough.

The Ottomans took slaves from Europe (mostly Slavs) and Africa but the slaves from Africa had less rights than European slaves. The empire was multicultural and at the beginning most rulers had an "Central Asian phenotype" (don't really think that exists but anyways). Why were black slaves that discriminated?

I don't want to offend anybody, my English is limited.

I don't know if this is a really stupid question, but when slaves were freed, were the adults allowed any kind of education in order to try and help them assimilate into society a little better? Also, what percentage of slaves spoke English?

I have a question. I'm white, but dna indicates that through my mother's family that we have an ancestor from sub sahara Africa. Her family came from Virginia, settled in eastern North Carolina and have been there ever since. Was this common back then? They came from England in the 1600s. Thanks in advance for whatever information you can provide.

Hey there! Could you make a comparison between slavery in the US and slavery in Brazil? I know slavery was outlawed in Brazil well into the times of Reconstruction in the US, but I don’t know many specific details. I’d be great if you could expand my knowledge upon this.

I've been fascinated with the story of the Black Seminoles in Florida and their two wars against the American federal government ever since I stumbled on this web site (www.johnhorse.com) while studying race in law school. Have you studied the two Seminole wars or the black Seminoles? It seems like such a forgotten part of American history, I'm always curious to hear if their importance has been exaggerated by that historian or if there are other points of view on the black Seminoles place in Seminole society and in American history.

Hi

Thanks for answering these. I don't mean to be disingenuous with this question, so I do hope I don't come across that way...

I've seen this video online of a southern / confederate dude arguing against some people saying that his family had owned a farm 'these lands' for generations, and then when asked about "who worked the farm" he came back with "my family did! Do you know how much a slave cost back then?!"

My question is, was it common that many poor families would not own slaves, or (fuck this is a horrible sentence to ask) *maybe just* the one? And then you'd have very wealthy people owning a very high amount? And so, much like you've got the campaigns now telling Us, as individuals, that the blame of pollution lies on us not using paper straws (and ignoring the massive corporate polluting footprint), is our view of slavery as it happened back then (not too long ago back then) equally painted with a 'blame the common folk, not the rulers' kind of slant?

Furthermore, would the presence / use of slaves in the local economy be used as an excuse to drive down the wages of paid-workers? (As in the elite now using immigrants as a scape goat for them dropping our wages) And if so, would this have led to increased racial tensions from the white workers (being shafted by the elite) to the black workers (far more shafted by the elite, but also a visible 'symptom' of wage drops a'comin?

And, if you'll allow a second, and equally ignorant question, (sorry!), what would you say to people who believe that The Wealthy Elite only think that other Wealthy Elite are actually genuine people, and beyond that, they'll dehumanise, manipulate and use anyone and everyone they can get the hands on?I constantly recall this line from (I think?) an Iranian woman a read a while back, saying basically "you and I are much alike. Our governments are much like each other. The true difference lies not between different working people in different countries, but between the working people and their rulers"

Hi Dr. Marks! Thank you for doing this.

I enjoyed reading through the 1619 project, but Ive also read fairly intense criticism from figures like Sean Wilentz who criticize the project as being inaccurate and perpetrating falsehoods.

Is the 1619 Project and others like it, detrimental to keeping the public informed about the issue of slavery? Or are historians too harsh in their criticism of the 1619 Project?

When reconstruction ended in the south, how many African Americans left the south in order to avoid the inevitable persecution?

Hello there Dr. Garrison. I'm listening to a podcast by Mike Duncan, where he goes through the Haitian revolution.

He speaks of how in the early days of the colony it was common for white, newly arrived and landless men to marry freed black women, as this might net them a plot of land. There is also cases of free white men marrying black, enslaved women (thus freeing them by the laws of the land).

Do we have any idea if this ever happened the other way around? Ie, did a white, free woman ever marry a coloured man, freed or otherwise? If not, why is that?

Thank you!

What connections (material, political, ideological) tied Charleston to Cartagena? Or if few/none, what made you choose to focus on these two places in particular? I've read Rana Hogarth's Medicalizing Blackness, which documents the importation of medical texts/claims from British practitioners in the Caribbean to southern medical practice, especially in Charleston. Was there an analagous exchange between Charleston and Cartagena?

How did the Free Soil Party (eventually merged into the Republican Party) contribute to abolition in the United States? Some groups see the party as abolitionists and others don’t because of the often white supremacist motivations of those in the party, but I’m interested in what contributions they made that would garner them the title of abolitionists. I know the Wilmot Proviso was an important early Free Soil form of legislation but I’d like to learn about any other significant contributions towards abolition.

Hi, Dr. Marks! Thanks for the AMA. What I've read hear so far has been enlightening and thought provoking. Where would you suggest I look to develop a general understanding of slavery in the Americas that I could learn along with my teen children? I'd like for them to have a more robust understanding than their public school education is providing and I could certainly do well to learn more myself. Thank you again for your time and knowledge. I'll definitely be buying your book!

What’s your take on the Black Lives Matter movement and other movements for racial and social justice? How would you explain the importance of these movements to a person who disagrees? What is the importance of black history and slavery to these movements? I have a few peers who believe that black history affects African Americans today! Also really enjoying reading all of your answers!

What a wonderful opportunity, thank you for doing this. Do you have any stories or have you seen any evidence that any slaves were freed by Freemasons? Or if any freed slaves became freemasons?

I read one of the reasons African Americans have higher risk for cardiovascular disease and high blood pressure compared to people born in Africa is because African Americans’ descendants were filtered when they were purchased by how much they sweat, leading to a bottleneck that has impacted current African Americans on a genetic level.

The article had an accompanying drawing from the slave trade of a slave owner licking the face of a prospective slave on auction to judge if the slave retained salt and would be hardier in surviving the trip to the Americas, as the ones who didn’t retain salt well were more likely to die.

Is this true? If so, should there be further increased assistance to African Americans to address this increased risk? I am aware there are educational projects and movements to increase cardiovascular awareness among African Americans, but is there anything you would suggest to improve people adhering to health advice in reducing their risk of cardiovascular disease?

Thank you.

I am aware of many slave rebellions in the Caribbean being based largely on religious figures or movements. Are there any good examples of this phenomenon in the U.S.? I would be particularly interested in hearing about how African spirituality may have factored into slave resistance, but understand even the Christianity adopted by African peoples in the Americas to be imbued with African spirituality, potentially making these distinctions tricky.

Here's a question I've always wondered about, and I've never been able to find an answer to:

Were any significant number of slaves known to have been kept in slavery in the former Confederate States after the Civil War? In a remote area, for instance? If so, for how long?

Note that I'm not asking about "near-slavery poverty" but actual antebellum-style slavery.

Will your book be available in an audio format, do you know?

To what extent were taxes levied on owners of slaves in this era? Are there extensive records of excise tax, or regular assesments of property values that included human captives?

Could i exonerate my ancestors or condemn anothers from accusations of racialized chattel oppression based upon tax and property records in the era?

How were the “jobs” created in households? I’ve never understood how people decided what another person can do for them? Was it based on what they looked like or did they even attempt to see what skills they had?

Also what’s the history on who even brought slaves to America? I have heard it was their own people that sold them. I’ve heard it was another person of the same color in America that first brought them and made them work. And I’ve heard that it was the old money people who did this first? I think there’s a lot of confusion or maybe a push for what they want you to believe and I’m a huge fan of true history.

I love history and this is something that’s not talked about a lot and it would be nice to hear the real truth on this so I appreciate you having this discussion because there have been a lot of really good questions.

This might be slightly off topic but I’ve always wondered when did native Africans begin willingly emigrating to the United States? It’s certainly a common practice today yet I’m sure it was not something that happened at all during the time of slavery. I’m curious to know what that transition was like and when did it occur, if you have any thoughts on the matter.

Hello Dr. Marks, thank you for coming to answer questions! Your answers so far have been very informative.

There are people and groups today that place the blame for slavery on Jewish people and state that in one way or another, Jews were the primary force behind the African slave trade. What impact did Jews have on the slave trade in comparison to their non-Jewish counterparts, and is there any basis to the idea that a significant amount of blame for the practice falls upon Jews?

Did African American populations grow faster during enslavement period or during abolition? I assume better living conditions during abolition would have lead to lower mortality rates. Do you have any insights?

Hello, Dr. Marks. I'm curious about which efforts of freed people to improve their lives were met with the most disapproving responses from their white neighbors. You mention that some freed people became barbers. Before the Civil War, would white people be most inclined to choose a barber by reputation, or to choose based on whether the barber were free or enslaved. In other words, would they rather give their business to someone providing for their own household or someone enriching their enslaver?

I know the were a couple of slave uprisings here in the SC lowcountry. Why were there not more of them, especially in areas that there were many more slaves than whites?

Hi Dr. Marks, how did newly emancipated African Americans view their constitutional rights, specifically those original amendments in the Bill of Rights? Did they think of them in a group or individualized context? Which did they view as most important?

Thanks for being brave enough to ask questions about race on Reddit.

Is there any law or policy that is still a direct holdover from old slavery laws?

Hi Dr. Marks,

I’ve read a lot of slave narratives in my prior studies of trans-Atlantic literature and heard they had a significant impact on the emancipation movement. We’re there any other ways in which free African-Americans, slaves or former slaves managed to utilise Literature, or the art sphere in general, as a vessel to oppose slavery?

In the British West Indian Colonies (Jamaica, Barbados, etc.), was there a sizable class of "Free People of Color", made up of mostly mixed-race people? Or was that only a trait of the Spanish and French colonies? (I was thinking something along the lines of the "gens de couleur" of Saint-Domingue.)

Follow-up question, was there a significant difference between slavery in the different West Indian colonies, based on which country ruled? For example, were there significant differences between British Jamaica versus Spanish Cuba?

I’m a teacher for high school social studies. What are some good books that discuss racism to give to my (primarily white middle class trump supporting students)?

Why didn't more black slaves fled to Mexico? There are some colonies of them in north mexico but as many as one would think given that mexico is not that far from texas and other southern slaves

I (white male), wrote a piece at university defending the right for black people to use discriminatory words referring to themselves and friends around them essentially as a reminder for white people to be aware of racism, using 'I'm not Racist' by Joyner Lucas, as an example.

I honestly just want to know if I'm overstepping, or if you even agree from my brief explanation.

Just a note, I absolutely do not condone the use from any other ethnicity.

Thank you

Do you have some good references about Mathieu Da Costa? Briefly, Mathieu is a member of the exploring party of Pierre Dugua, the Sieur de Monts, and Samuel de Champlain that travelled from France to the New World in the early 17th century. He was the first recorded free black person to arrive on the territory of today's Canada. I'm looking specifically for anything about any family he may or may not have had in Canada.

Do we know where he is from in Africa? Could he have possibly been from NE Africa? Before going with Pierre Dugua, he somehow seemed to be able to communicate with some of the natives in Canada. Any idea how he was able to do that? Had he made trips to Canada before that?

How was he able to get free from the Dutch after being kidnapped?

Where do you stand on the thought that he had children with a native woman, one child being Jean Cote (who married Anne Martin)?

so important for the white slave owners to institutionalize the white God to all the slaves The pictures of a white man as God and the ”turn the other cheek teachings” It's was a mental control for the slaves as they believe the white God as good and would refrain from usurping there white masters

Why has this practice continues to this day? Black people still to this day Worship
a white God that was used to enslave and justify there rape and torture

Example: Ephesians 6:5-8 Paul states, “Slaves, be obedient to your human masters with fear and trembling, in sincerity of heart, as to Christ” which is Paul instructing slaves to obey their master.

After black people were no longer enslaved did white people have 'more racist' views about them, because they were free but didn't have many prestigious jobs.

So you know anything about Native American slavery.

Is the prison industrial complex comparable to chattel slavery in the United States, especially with the advent of private prisons?

Thank you!

Are there statistical studies of black slave owners? For example, how many were there and in what jurisdictions?

Can you elucidate upon the relationship between (free) Black people and Irish immigrants during the mid 1800s? I have always been fascinated with the fact that many black americans have Irish-sounding last names (e.g. Murphy, O'Neal, Patterson, etc.).

What would you in response to those people that say, “slavery wasn’t that bad” or like “some slaves were treated well!”?

Dr Marks, Could you discuss the role native Eastern Africans played in the slave trade.

Hi John, huge thanks for these amazing answers.

Can I ask about the role of trade unions and labour organisations on racial attitudes and relationships in different areas of the Americas? I know Du Bois criticised them in the 1930s but I think other scholars have discussed desegregated unions playing big roles in late 19th/early 20th century US racial justice movements.

Dr. Garrison, thank you for taking the time out of your day to do this AMA! As a senior this year receiving a degree in Modern History, I decided to make my thesis about freedom suits in St. Luis. I was just wondering if you perhaps had any recommendations on some possible research on the subject so I could better shape my thesis. Thank you!

Looking through a Virginia merchant's ledger of the late 18th c. , I am trying to figure out if various black people mentioned are free or enslaved. . They are always identified as "Negro" and their first name, e.g. "Negro Frank". Sometimes it is obvious that they are enslaved and doing business or errands for their master- getting a bottle of whiskey, or being hired out- because the master's name is listed also, as paying up or getting paid. But sometimes there is no mention of a master's name. Around this time ( before the cotton boom of the 19th c.) would some enslaved people commonly be allowed enough freedom to actually do some small business on their own, like ( in Negro Frank's case) dig some post holes for credit at the store? Or would it be reasonable to assume they're free?

I have 4 questions. The questions are short!

I hope I get to hear from you!

1. So, in college in Texas, I was told by a history teacher that originally slavery in the colonies was meant to be indentured servitude. They would slave for 14 years-ish and then would get freedom but as the colonies grew they simply did away with granting freedom and since the slaves weren’t reading or writing it basically got away from them faster than than they could keep up with it. How true is this anyway?

2. There were many acts of rebellion of slaves, they’d riot or run away but were their other forms of rebellion that were less obvious? Like we’re their slaves that would sneak learning to read or write or something to that affect? Or anything besides carrying over some African traditions and changing them for their current living situation?

3. “12 years a slave” the movie brought up a couple of things for me. How common were reverse underground railroads? Frankly, though I’m black I didn’t know that was even a thing until I watched that movie, though it didn’t really surprise me.

4. How often was it that whites would send in a white person as a spy to see if the slaves were doing something that could get them in trouble?

When the Confederados arrived in Sao Paulo after the Civil War, they were reportedly put off by the relative freedom of free Blacks compared to what they were used to in the American South. Is this an accurate portrayal of what their views might have been, and would it have been founded in anything concrete? What were the differences between free Blacks in southern Brasil and the American Deep South?

Can you give us some insight into the evolution of the market economies in the southern colonies?

I've asked this before but didn't get a satisfactory resolution. The topic of nooses came up in a discussion I was having with a friend and I said that the noose these days is a racist symbol with which my friend staunchly disagreed. I said it goes without saying and is pretty obvious for almost everyone in America that a noose is symbol of racism, with which my friend also disagreed. Later, I started wondering if I'm actually the minority and my understanding of the noose was based on assumption. This isn't something I felt I could Google and get a reliable answer on. My line of questioning is would America see the noose as a racist symbol? Would Americans agree or disagree that it is a racist symbol? If it is, how did it become this way? And what are some places I could read to investigate American consensus on the noose as a symbol and some resources that could enhance my discussion with my friend?

Thank you

Hi. Thank you so much for this thread. I'm assuming you're aware of people like Dr. Umar Johnson, Tariq Nasheed and others? How do you feel about them and do you feel they do a good job of educating people about black history? Do you think they're too radical? Have you seen Tariq's Hidden Colors series and some of his other films? If so, what do you think about those? Again, really appreciate you doing this.

What was the American reaction when slavery became outlawed in Great Britain? Did Americans take notice? Were any critical of this change? Was slavery ever a point of contention in British-American relations?

Why do you think we were never able to shake our racist roots? There was a civil war over it, and we seem to be pretty divided today. Do you believe we could have done anything differently that would have made us less so?

Hi Dr john marks. How do you feel the nation of islam's stance on jews affects the Americas. I have had black friends tell me they believe this in confidence but don't say it in public because it is controversial. I think the book skews the facts and is over critical and innacurate in portraying jews, but I think the publication was profound in a historical sense.

In 1991, the Nation of Islam, a branch of the Black Nationalist Movement, published a copiously footnoted book intriguingly titled The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews.In 1991, the Nation of Islam, a branch of the Black Nationalist Movement, published a copiously footnoted book intriguingly titled The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews.

I heard about white men sexually abusing the enslaved women all the time, but were the cases of the opposite? White women sexually assaulting the enslaved? I’ve also read that babies were fed to alligators and that they would bury the enslaved up to their necks then kick them like soccer balls. How true are these claims? Shit like that really gets my blood boiling and I want to know how historically true these are. I would also like more information on the Maroon communities! I always found them interesting.

What encouraged you to write this book

Dr. Mark

Not sure if this is in your expertise or not.... but I’ve heard both sides of the spectrum when it comes to Christopher Columbus.

I’ve heard people say he was vile and deplorable and I’ve heard people praise him and say he wasn’t nearly as bad to the natives as many others were.

Which is true?

You are likely to find a like-minded audience here on reddit, but unfortunately there are many people in our society who sincerely and honestly believe that other races are inferior. They don't think of themselves as bad people - or racists - they just think of it as a matter of fact that there are genetic variations among the "races", and that some are smarter or better than others. I've had conversations with such people, and I will have them again in the future. I hope to develop a way to get through to these people, even if I only plant a seed. Alas, I have thus far been unsuccessful.

In your experience, what methods have worked for you to persuade people to think differently about race, equality, and justice?

Hey Dr. Garrison, I once worked with a local underground railroad chapter in Connecticut to help preserve an old building. They were up against an eminent domain action, triggered by a nearby coal power plant that polluted the neighborhood. They lost the case, and the building was torn down. Heartbreaking. I also did some work with the Gullah on some shady business by local government to force them to turn over land for a golf course and a fated community. Issue there was proving title. They lost of course.

Learning about the institutionalized machine against black owned land was just astounding. I imagine thousands and thousands of similar cases. Ideally, the systems should at least bend in favor of people, not towards private interests.

Can you talk about this topic a bit? How are black historical sites being documented and preserved? What role does the general play in contentious historic preservation? Etc.

On average, when ancestors of european born blacks emigrated to Europe?