Introduction

The subject of dissection in the Ottoman Empire is quite murky until 1841, when it was finally allowed under Abdulmejid I during a period of Ottoman reformation.

Before this, we don't quite have any recordings of people performing human dissections under the Ottoman Empire. There were, of course, several attempts by sultans and prominent physicians to allow dissection prior to 1841, but these attempts were often met with failure or were halted by those who believed dissection was against Islam. Although, the Quran never specifically outlaws dissection.^(1)

Nonetheless, for an aspiring or even a well-trained physician, the pathways for studying anatomy were still rich. Detailed and illustrated textbooks; skeletons; the dissection of animals and fake, human cadavers; viewing or performing autopsies; and—as a trained physician—performing surgeries provided ample opportunities to learn and master anatomy.

Texts

The first Turkish-language anatomical text written under the Ottoman Empire was Semsettin Itaki's Kitab-i Tesrihu’l-Ebdan ve Tercuman-i Kibale-i Feylesufan.

Written around 1632, the book contains an in-depth discussion on anatomy and features many detailed pictures of the human body and its components. Copies of the book were continuously made into the 1700s, hinting that the book was an important text for some time.^(2) However, even for such a textbook, it is likely that the findings and knowledge were based on animal dissection and human surgeries—not human dissection.^(3)

Fake Cadavers

By the 1830s, paper mache cadavers were even used. These were full-sized human replicas made of sturdy paper, which could be deconstructed, revealing their inner components. Then, they could be reassembled and used for the next "dissection."

While not entirely akin to real dissection, these were a popular tool and we have several records of the Ottoman state purchasing these paper cadavers from French, and later Austrian, businesses. A record of the purchases show that the Ottomans paid for a full-sized male and female human and later purchased a full-sized model of a pregnant female.^(4)

You can find some pictures of these paper mache humans through this Smithsonian National Museum of American History page, for the United States also purchased several of these models. These images show the full-sized human models with a collection of smaller models, including an eye, a brain, and a series of models showing the development of a fetus.

Even after the lifting of the ban on human dissection, these paper mache cadavers proved useful and were still being purchased up to 1890 for the Imperial Medical School.

Autopsies and the Lifting of the Ban

The lifting of the ban itself was initiated by the Austrian Karl Ambros Bernard, who was appointed as the chief of the Imperial Medical School in Istanbul. Before appealing to the sultan, Bernard performed legal autopsies on human bodies in front of students at the Austrian Hospital in Istanbul. This form of dissection was allowed because it was used to determine the cause of death of a person.^(5)

Being from Europe, where more thorough and educational dissections were commonplace and seeing the need for such practices in Ottoman schools, Bernard made his case to the sultan that the ban be lifted. Deciding that there would be little push-back on the dissection of dead captives from the prisons of the Imperial Shipyard, the sultan accepted and the ban was lifted in 1841.

While we know definitively that the ban was lifted in 1841, it may have actually been lifted as early at 1804. Selim III allowed the development of a medical department for the Greek Academy of Istanbul in which students were to work in hospitals and perform dissections. However, there is very little evidence for actual dissections besides the writings about the initial plan for the medical department.

Conclusion

From this discussion, I feel that we can put forward several sources for learning about anatomy in the Ottoman Empire:

• First, books, such as the one written by Semsettin Itaki, which contained detailed illustrations, which were foundational in Ottoman schools.
• Second, the examination of bones and skeletons was commonplace. While still dealing with human remains, this did not bring much objection.
• Third, some students witnessed autopsies, which surely would have discussed anatomy. This is most prominent in the case of Karl Ambros Bernard's classes. Teachers would have also performed autopsies, which would reinforce their knowledge of anatomy.
• Fourth, fake, paper mache cadavers were present in some classrooms, which could be taken apart and put back together. Even after the ban on dissection was lifted, the Ottoman state was still purchasing these.
• Fifth, the dissection of animals could be performed, which were roughly approximate to humans. Çetkin, Orhan, Bahşi, and Turhan's paper posits that Semsettin Itaki based much of his work on animals.
• Sixth, trained physicians performing surgeries would have reinforced what they learned in school by operating on people, such as pregnant women or soldiers with wounds.

As we can see, there was still many avenues for exploring anatomy without dissection. However, as Karl Ambros Bernard would argue, these methods were just not as effective as actually working with a real human body. Nonetheless, by 1841, the ban on dissection had been lifted and people interested in working with cadavers would have been able to find experience with them in the Imperial Medical School.

Bibliography

^(1) Akkin's and Dinc's A Glimpse Into the Process of Gaining Permission for the Educational Dissection of Human Cadavers in the Ottoman Empire, see page 965.

^(2) İlhan Bahşi and Ayşe Bahşi's “Teşrih‑ül Ebdan ve Tercümânı Kıbale‑i Feylesûfan”: the first illustrated anatomy handwritten textbook in Ottoman‑Turkish medicine, see page 1132.

^(3) Çetkin, Orhan, Bahşi, Turhan's Anatomy of spinal nerves in the first Turkish illustrated anatomy handwritten textbook, see page 209.

^(4) Ortung and Yuzbasioglu's Tracing the papier mache anatomical models of Ottoman Turkish medicine and Louis Thomas Jerôme Auzoux, see page 1148.

^(5) Akkin's and Dinc's A Glimpse Into the Process of Gaining Permission for the Educational Dissection of Human Cadavers in the Ottoman Empire, see page 969.