Before Constantine, changing the Roman religion was something mad, doomed Emperors like Caligula and Heliogabalus did. Can we tell if contemporaries though this would just be another fad?

by ShonenSuki
ACl0ckworkBanana

Firstly, I would dispute that only 'failed' Roman Emperors changed the Roman religion. The office of Pontifex Maximus (religious leader of Rome, inherited directly by the Papacy) was a key office in the collection of offices that defined the powers of the Emperor. The Pontifex Maximus had the powers to define holy days and sanctify Romans, the latter power would become extremely important to the Imperial Cult when Augustus deified his uncle/adoptive father Julius Caeser in 29 BC. This was a significant departure from religious norms in Rome and 'changed the Roman religion', though I wouldn't call the Divine Augustus a 'mad, doomed Emperor' and I don't think that's the historical consensus either. Another pre-Constantine 'successful' Emperor who changed the Roman religion (not including deification of past Emperors)would be Aurelian with his promotion of the cult of Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun.

I'm not sure how Caligula is meant to have changed Rome's religion, but Elagabalus (Heliogabalus) certainly is recorded to have promoted his Syrian Cult of Elagabal (the Sun) at the expense of the traditional Roman gods. Different gods were emphasized more or less throughout Roman history but raising Elagabal above Jupiter is a credible contribution to Elagabalus' eventual assassination. One can imagine Elagabalus' assassins believing that the concept of a Sun Cult would retreat back to the East.

With historical hindsight we know that the concept of a Sun Cult would make a strong return with Sword-in-Hand Aurelian, and there is a school of thought that links the Cult of Elagabal directly to the worship of Sol Invictus. 48 years passed between the assassination of Elagabalus and the investiture of Aurelian, and that seems quite long for a 'fad' to last.

I also believe its relevant to discuss the nature of religion in the Roman Empire pre-Christianity. Most* of the Mediterranean cultures in this period worshiped a pantheon of gods and goddesses with each having a specific cult, the Hellenic Cult of Apollo with it's famous Temple at Delphi being a good example. In general Rome did not force the provincial subjects to adopt the Roman pantheon wholecloth. The Imperial government required that provincials adopt the Imperial Cult (that is, the deification of previous Emperors) into their existing pantheons and most* provincials, being polytheistic, could accept this. The Sun Cult could be seen to take the Imperial Cult concept further into a more dominant role in an Imperial subject's pantheon.

Christianity was (and is) a fundamentally different beast than a pantheon of cults. Christianity had (has) one God, one scripture, and by the time of Constantine the Great had a strong network of churches in the urbanized administrative centers of the Roman Empire. This power structure which ran parallel to the Imperial government was for centuries either ignored or seen as a potential threat by the Emperors. When Constantine promoted Christianity in his domain and used it legitimize his rule he had a ready-made network of previously marginalized clients that helped to stabilize his rule after his civil wars. This is in contrast to Elagabalus, who could be seen to 'jump the gun' with regards to strengthening the Imperial Cult with Eastern monotheism.

I think that the main conclusion to draw from this is that the Roman and Mediterranean religion, especially the Imperial Cult, was used by both 'successful' and 'unsuccessful' Emperors to legitimize their rule. Most of the time, when the historical record shows a change in Roman religion at an Emperor's hand it is a successful Emperor consolidating power by wedding popular sentiment to religious sanctity:

  • Caesar was an incredibly popular figure by 29BC upon his deification by Augustus, and the deification strengthened Augustus' legitimacy.

  • Sol Invictus was worshiped widely in the Legions, Aurelian's base of power.

  • Christianity was already widespread in the Empire's cities by the Battle of the Milvian Bridge and Constantine strengthened his hold on power after embracing it.

Elagabalus (and presumably Caligula) were not nearly as effective as securing their legitimacy as the three Emperors above, not just in the religious aspect but militarily as well. Misjudging what changes to make to the Roman religion would not be out of their respective characters.

*Notable exclusion of Judea, ask Hadrian or your rabbi for more details