I know historians refer to the Jacobean, Georgian, and Caroline eras, but I think the public only really know about the Elizabethan, Victorian, and Edwardian eras. Why is this?
I don't think that's true. There's lots used, it just depends on the context.
'Georgian housing' is often referred to in certain cities that have a lot of that architecture. As is 'Restoration Fashion' when referring to the flamboyant changes in noble fashions after the restoration of the monarchy under Charles II. The executions under Queen Mary are sometimes known as the 'Marian Burnings' and those who fled from these as the 'Marian Exiles'.
The reason the three you mentioned are more talked about is simply because much, much more changed under those rulers. Under Elizabeth, many things we think of as 'essentially English' came in to the country, such as potatoes and tea and tobacco. Under Liz and Vicky, Britain also soared to new heights of power, territorial gains and influence. These spread across more than judt a few cultural changes like those I mentioned in the previous paragraph, thus they tend to get mentioned more.