In response to a question by u/ByzantineBasileus

The following is a brief political history of the Rajputs, their military accolades, organisation and tactics with special reference to the states of Mewar and Amber :

SISODIYA DYNASTY

First, let us look at the Sisodias of Mewar. This house of Rajputs traces it's origins from the legendary Suryavnshi lineage. But while records to back up such claims are obviously questionable, the historical foundation of this dynasty lies in the rise of Rana Hammir Singh, the founder of the Sisodiya Cadet Branch of the Guhila dynasty. The Guhila dynasty was extinguished by Alauddin Khalji after he besieged and conquered Chittor in 1303, their capital. But Rana Hammir Singh had taken back Chittor and since then reclaimed control of the region and re-established the dynasty under its cadet branch of the Sisodias by 1326. Owing to the legendary exploits of their kings and being one of the few Hindu noble houses that had remained independent during the successive reigns of various dynasties at the helm of the Delhi Sultanate, the House of Mewar carried weight amongst Rajput nobility.

Apart from Rana Hammir Singh, two rulers in particular, Rana Kumbharna Singh (1433-1468) and his great grandson Rana Sangram Singh (1508-1528), had raised the prestige of the House of Mewar to astronomical heights by not only defeating neighbouring Sultanates in Gujurat, Nagaur, Delhi and Malwa, but infact under the reign of Rana Sangram, actually conquering Gujurat and Malwa. Therefore, by 1526, most Rajput states had formed a Confederacy under the leadership of Rana Sanga. Ofcourse, following his defeat the Confederacy fell apart and while the house of Mewar still held a high place on the Rajput and indeed the Indian sociopolitical stage, there would never again be such a untied political front offered by the Rajputs.

In terms of the motivations and objectives of the Confederacy, it could be said that the Confederacy was buoyed together towards the political wills of the Rana of Mewar. Rana Sanga had made a policy to attack and acquire the territories of his kingdom's old enemies such as the Sultanates of Delhi, Gujurat, Nagaur and Malwa, and at the same time remove any traces of Turkic or Afghan dominion in North India. Therefore, it would be safe to say that had Babur not invaded Delhi and taken the Upper Ganga Valley, the Rana would have quite soon. Among the many noble houses that had joined the Rajput Confederacy was the next dynasty which came to prominence and dominated the political scene in the mate 16th and 17th centuries and early 18th centuries in North India.

KACHWAHAS OF AMBER

This was the Kachwahas of Amber. This dynasty claimed it's descent from the son Kush of the legendary King Rama of Ayodhya. Their ancestors allegedly migrated from Rama's kingdom of Kosala and established a new dynasty at Gwalior. After 31 generations, they moved to Rajputana and created a kingdom at Dhundhar. Dullah Rai, one of the ancestors of the Kachwaha rulers, defeated the Meenas of Manchi and Amber and later completed the conquest of Dhundhar by defeating the Bargurjars of Dausa and Deoti. However, in the early 16th century, they were conquered and vassalised by the Rathore ruler Maldeo of the kingdom of Marwar.

In 1527, the ruler of Amber who had joined the Rajput Confederacy was Prithviraj Singh I. Prithviraj had fought at Khanwa and like Rana Sanga, died soon afterwards, being succeeded by his son Puranmal. After Puranmal's succession, which was quite controversial, the Kachwaha domain became unstable over disputes regarding the succession of Puranmal to the Throne. This problem was only further exacerbated by neighbouring Rajput kingdoms that sought to capitalise on the situation. While accounts about Puranmal seeking the aid of Humayun are varying and quite contradictory we know for sure that after Puranmal, his brother Bhim Singh assumed the Throne. Bhim only reigned three and a half years before dying on 22 July 1537. He was succeeded in quick succession by two sons, Ratan Singh and Askaran, before the throne eventually passed to his younger brother Bharmal in 1548.

TURNING POINT IN KACHWAHA HISTORY

It is here that we arrive at a crucial juncture in Mughal-Rajput relations. In Mewar, the reigns were assumed by the 4th son of Rana Sanga, Maharana Udai Singh II, under whose reign the capital of Chittor was lost to Akbar in 1568 and the capital was shifted to Udaipur. Here his son, Maharana Pratap assumed the Throne after Udai died in 1572. Meanwhile, Akbar had overthrown his guardian Bairam Khan who had grown too ambitious and controlling and at the age of 18, the young Baadshaah of the Mughal Empire removed Bairam from service and continued his expeditions by directly controlling all affairs from 1560 onwards. Meanwhile, in 1562, the situation became critical for the Kachwahas of Amber when Mirza Muhammad Sharaf-ud-din Hussain was appointed Mughal governor of Mewat. Mirza led a large army to Amber which Bharmal could not resist. Mirza forced the Kachwahas to leave Amber and live in forests and hills. Bharmal promised a fixed tribute to Mirza and handed over his own son, Jagannath, and his nephews, Raj Singh and Khangar Singh, as hostages for its due payment. When Sharaf-ud-din was preparing to invade Amber again, Bharmal met Akbar's courtier, Chaghtai Khan. Fortunately, for Bharmal, Akbar was at Karavali (a village near Agra) on his way from Agra to Ajmer (on a pilgrimage to the dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti). Bharmal himself met Akbar at his camp at Sanganer on 20 January 1562. Here, according to the Akbarnama, Bharmal proposed a marriage between Akbar and his eldest daughter Hira Kunwari. Therefore, when Akbar agreed, the Kachwahas were now relatives of Akbar, Bharmal was his father-in-law and was in par with the highest Muslim nobles of the Empire. Hence, Sharaf-ud-din Mirza, returned to Bharmal his lands and relatives and in the following years, the Kachwahas rendered unwavering service to the Mughals while they themselves enjoyed the highest salaries, status and prestige the Empire had to offer.

THE FATE OF MEWAR : PRATAP AND AMAR

The House of Mewar, still held in the highest esteem by all Rajput nobility was in a period of decline and The House of Amber had united with the Mughals. Raja Bharmal was succeeded by his son Raja Bhagwant Das in 1574. He served as Akbar's General and was awarded a rank or mansab of 5000 along with the title of Amir-ul-Umra. He fought battles in Punjab, Kashmir where he decisively defeated the Kashmiri King Yousuf Shah Chak and Afghanistan as well and he held the governorship of Kabul. His daughter Manbhawati Bai was married off to the Mughal Prince and future Emperor Jehangir. He died in 1589 being succeeded by his son Raja Man Singh.

Raja Man Singh, assumed the Throne of Amber in 1589, but he had served with distinction at the Battle of Haldighati 1576 against the Maharana of Mewar, Maharana Pratap in a legendary battle, and in other campaigns as well. The reason why Akbar wanted to conquer Rajputana and especially Mewar was because with Mewar and the Rajputs at his flanks, his empire would never be secure, a fact he had learned by learning about the experiences of the Delhi Sultanate and their fruitless tussle with the Sisodiya dynasty. Yet, in his lifetime, Akbar could not conquer Mewar. Even after being defeated at Haldighati, where his army of 3000-4000 Rajputs and allied Bhils (400 men approx.), was defeated by Man Singh who commanded the Imperial Mughal Army roughly 8000-10,000 in numbers, Pratap Singh endured and by the end of his reign, he scored a decisive victory against the Mughals at Dewair in 1582 and took back Western Mewar including Kumbhalgarh, Udaipur and Gogunda through guerilla warfare and even destroyed newly built mosques in these regions in retaliation. He died in 1597.

After his death, his son Maharana Amar Singh I (r. 1597-1620) assumed the Throne and followed his father's policy of resisting Mughal overlordship. Amar Singh continued to resist the Mughals and it was clear that he could not be taken in a battle, so Mewar was devastated financially and in manpower due to the policy of Shah Jahan (son of Jahangir, Jahangir had become Emperor in 1605 after Akbar's death) , to scorch the lands of Mewar and make it incapable of supporting the efforts of Amar Singh. Finally, in 1615, Amar Singh signed a peace treaty with the Mughals. Mewar including Chittor was assigned to him as Watan Jagir or hereditary patrimony. He secured a favourable peace treaty and it was ensured that Mewar would never bend his knee to the Mughal Emperors or serve at his court personally nor would the House of Mewar enter into matrimonial relations with the Mughals.

Finally, the attitudes in Rajputana and in general accross North India were shaped by the actions and decisions of the Rajput houses of Mewar and Amber. While Mewar only grew in prestige as the last stronghold and symbol of strength and resistance for the more conservative elements in Hindu society, the House of Amber was universally recognised as a house which produced some of the finest administrators and generals the Empire would ever know. And yet, the more conservative elements in Hindu society saw the House of Amber as traitors, ofcourse such opinions were never discussed in front of the Amber Rajas.

u/GutzBlackSword

When looking at the Maratha military successes of the late 17th and early 18th century we must first put things into context regarding the state of the Mughal Empire at this time, the nature of Maratha warfare, their military system and social structure as well as the geographical advantages they gained by sticking to their home territory and avoiding direct confrontation with the Mughals in pitched battles, instead relying on the physical landscape of their homeland, it's hills, forests, jungles and valleys to ambush and destroy small while at times large Mughal forces.

The Marathas also made use of the numerous forts that had sprung up in the region in wake of the Bahmani and its successors, the Deccan Sultanates whose rule had brought prosperiity, wealth, knowledge and defensive architecture to the Deccan, which the Marathas made full use of. These forts would be the sites of many a long sieges and encounters between Maratha and Mughal forces. The Mughal forces, largely made up of men from the plains, used to pitched battles, was forced to march through enemy territory and extend it's supply lines and lines of communication leaving them at times highly vulnerable.

During the late 17th century, the leadership of the nascent Maratha kingdom fell into the hands of Shivaji, son of Shahji. In the Deccan, the Marathas had been a force to be reckoned with. They had served as mercenaries in the armies of Empires and kingdoms for centuries and their social structure made them conducive to mercenary work. Villages and village chiefs populated by Marathas, provided mercenaries in the form of infantry and cavalry to the Deccan Sultanates and their predecessor the Bahmani Sultanate since their establishment. By the beginning of the 17th century, the constant strife and warfare between these neighbouring Sultanates and eventually the Mughal Empire meant more and more opportunities for the Marathas to seek civil and military service. Marathas were usually employed as Bargirs or men who rode horses provided by the employer. While well-off Bargirs, or chiefs with the funds necessary to purchase a horse and a typical cavalry dress of the period, could enlist as a Shiledar.

It was from the ranks of the Shiledars that many early Maratha leading families such as the Nimbalkars, the Jadhavs, the Pawars etc. emerged into prominence. However, given the nature of Maratha society, and the fact that none of the clans in the Maratha fold or caste had claims of Kshatriya status, meant that social mobility among Maratha clans was more common than in most parts of the subcontinent, with leading families marrying into traditionally Shudra houses.

Yet, even higher in rank than Shiledars were the Maratha Jagirdars, holders of military fiefs or jagirs , that would cover the expenses of a certain and specified number of troops they were required to maintain and keep under arms as well as their own stipulated salary. It was the jagir of Poona that Shahji left it in the care of his neglected wife, Jijabai, Shivaji's mother and the jagir administrator Dadaji Kondadeo. Shivaji's military carrier began at the young age of 15 in 1645, at the expense of the Bijapuri Sultanate. Through bribes he acquired the fort of Torna, he persuaded the commander of the Bijapuri fort of Kondana, and also acquired Rajgarh by 1647.

After the death of his guardian, Dadaji in 1647, the Poona jagir passed to Shivaji and he became his own master. What Shivaji lacked in claims to high noble blood, he had gained in his upbringing. A life of adversity, strict discipline and training from a young age, the result of his mother and guardians attention to the young soon-to-be conqueror, gave him perspective, willpower and physical and spiritual strength to fight and prevail against the seemingly impossible odds that awaited him. While the old "Great Man" theory is not always my cup of tea, it cannot be underestimated how much of an impact Shivaji and his policies and actions had on Maratha history and the building of the kingdom.

Shivaji had the ability to seize initiative quickly, he was naturally charismatic, and his accomplishments since a young age allowed him to acquire a status and a following among the mercenary Maratha society. He was able to organise his largely infantry army into sensible unit compositions and appointed appropriate officers. He did away with the practice of Jagirdars and implemented a more centralised control on the Kingdom. He did not restrict himself with caste considerations when recruiting soldiers, yet being a products of him times, could not ignore social realities and therefore the highest offices of the state went to Marathas and Brahmins. He created a highly disciplined and motivated army of followers. An army that would serve the Marathas following the same edicts, structures and principles handed down by Shivaji until the early 18th century.

He insisted to siezing the opportunities provided to him by nigh constant war and distractions that the Deccan Sultanates and Aurangzeb found themselves in and continued to make daring conquests, raiding Surat, one of the most important Mughal ports and did not shy away from treachery such as night infiltration into enemy territory to assassinate commanders to secure the inutiave and gain victory when cornered such as when he killed Afzal Khan and Shaista Khan, the former in his tent and the latter in his harem. Therefore, by 1664, he had made extensive conquests at the expense of the Deccan Sultanates and had acquired a considerable army and following along with a legendary stature among Maratha houses and leading families.

When Aurangzeb found his southern territories bordering this rising and plundering Maratha Cheif, he sent one of his most trusted and capable generals, Raja Jai Singh I of Amber. The latter being the current ruler of a noble house that had been connected with the Mughal dynasty and its rise to power since the days of Akbar. Jai Singh was given full command and independence to accomplish his goals of subduing the rising Maratha power. Following a series of successful sieges and encounters Jai Singh managed to surround the fort of Purandar, holding Shivaji's family and treasure, forcing the latter to sign the Treaty of Purandar in 1666 on the 11th of June. The stipulations being, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the Mughals. Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan as a mansabdar.

Upon reaching Agra, Shivaji was disrespected by Aurangzeb and put under house arrest. This he escaped in 1666, and for 2 years, consolidated his position in his territories in peace. Following which, he began to recoquer his lost territories and acquired much of it, also plundered Surat a second time, and by marrying into leading Maratha families, claiming descent from the Sisodias via a genealogy drawn up by the Brahmin Gaga Bhatta from Benares who also presided over his coronation, he was crowed King in 1674. Therefore, upon his death, in 1680, he had left his successors a foundation to continue their struggle and war against the Mughals.

In response to a question from u/sajahet25

Rajput armour in the period from roughly 700-1500 CE, is highly dependent on the status of the troops in Rajput armies, since these states were feudal in structure and usually required their soldiers, drawn from the Rajput but also the Brahmin caste, to provide themselves with the weapons suitable or affordable for a person of their rank.

By the 13th century, the Rajputs were well entrenched into a feudal system of civil and military organisation. The land of a kingdom was divided into villages headed by rais, who were themselves subordinated to either individually or in groupings known as thikana to thakurs which initially was a term which referred to Rajputs or Kshatriyas exclusively, but eventually became a title and was used by Brahmins of the same feudal rank. Next were Samantas special ministers appointed by kings to administer a number thikanas or to serve in special roles in the administration. There were also a number of other feudal lords and chiefs, subordinated to the Raja, and several Rajas would be further subordinated to a Maharaja or a Great King.

The army itself was raised out of 6 military labour pools namely :

1. Maula or hereditary troops

2. Bhrita or regular forces/mercenaries

3. Sreni or troops supplied by guilds, towns etc.

4. Mitra or Suhrd or forces of allied states

5. Dwisad or Ari or soldiers alienated from the enemy camp, by bribery, or recruited after defeating the enemy

6. Atavika forces raised out of tribal groups such as Bhils

Among these groups the most important pool of military labour is Maula. This refers to those soldiers whose previous generations have owed loyalty to and have shown exceptional service towards the king, who in recognition of these services appoints them as part of his Maula troops. These troops were also often drawn from close and distant family members. For example, a king might have many brothers, who might have many sons and those sons might have married into families and those families might have several capable men of fighting age as well. The king would appoint men from this labour pool into his Maula force as he saw fit and each soldier would be replaced by a brother or son when they died. Hence making them hereditary troops both in terms of their replenishment and the fact that each successive generation inherited these troops. These men, being close friends and family of the king, meant they could be given independent charge, could advise him in war and could be appointed as commanders of any number of units.

The Rajput cavalry of the period, covered the heads of their horses with artificial elephant trunks to make it seem to the enemies elephants as if a horde of young elephants were charging towards them, thus discouraging any attacks from the beasts. The typical equipment of a Rajput cavalryman in the period consisted of mail armour for the torso covering the arms as well, a steel helmet, two tulwar swords ( single edge or single+false edge curved swords with disc hilts and bulbous grips, an native innovation and an answer to the Persian shamshir), or a tulwar and a Khanda (a double edged broad sword, with a basket hilt, and bulbous grips), along with axes, maces, and eventually in imitation of their Turkic enemies, bows and arrows. Depending on the income and status of a cavalryman, more complex armour such as plated mail, plate gauntlets and greaves, chest and back plates etc. were also a feature. Mail armour in particular was a common feature of Indian armies, especially for troops that were either directly in Imperial serve such as the Maula in case of the Rajputs or those sections of society that could afford it such as the Thakurs, even in the Arthshahtra there is mention of the lohjala or net made of iron. Helmets were usually made with mai hanging from the back to cover the neck from slashing attacks from behind. Nosegaurds, were also a feature for helmets.

Sources:

"Indian Arms and Amour, Volume III" by G.N. Panth

"Arthashastra" by Kautilya tr. by R. Shamasastry

"The political system and military organisation of the Rajputs in Northern India, c. AD 800-1450", Rashmi Upadhyaya

In response to a question by u/dreamsonfire

You may find the answers you are looking for in this answer I wrote recently about the Mughal Empire's downfall and how much of a role Aurangzeb had to play in it

u/IHateYourSocks

It is a common misconception to look at Rajput military history and interpret it as a series of defeats and the easy conquest of Rajput states at the hands of stronger Turkic, Afghan or Mughal warlords. However this simplifies and ignores the many instances of Rajput resistance to conquest during the 12-14th centuries, the reversals to Turkic conquests by the 15th century, and also ignores the nature of the relationship between Rajput and Mughal states.

I have elaborated a brief history of the House of Sisodiya Rajputs which was at the forefront of resistance and reversals against the Delhi Sultanate from the 13th to early 16th century, as well as it's relations with the Mughal dynasty

Also, another point to remember is that the period between 711 CE to roughly the 11th century, saw various waves of Arab and Turkic conquests and expeditions being repelled by the Chalukyas, the Pratiharas, the Rashtrakutas, by Chach of Alor etc.