Thankyou for doing another of these!

Over the late 14th century to 15th century, your work shows an increasing specialisation in English war armour for dismounted fighting. Then, around the mid 15th century onwards we seem to see English styles move away from that and towards configurations seemingly aimed more at mounted combat again. Presumably these changes followed the changing fighting style of those men-at-arms.

What do you think drove this arc? Military requirement? Fashion? Economics?

Thankyou

How much did later conflicts in what is now commonly called 'The Hundred Years War' influence English arms, armour and tactics during the Wars of the Roses? Did the English bring back new ideas from the continent that they put to use during their civil conflicts?

Hi Toby,

I’ve heard people describe a mounted knight in full armor as being the “tanks of the medieval battlefield.” Do you think this is an apt comparison? Along the same lines, would a foot soldier wearing a mail shirt and armed with a sword have an actual chance against a mounted knight in plate armor? Or would that be such an unfair match that the foot soldier likely wouldn’t even attempt it

Dr. Capwell, I first learned about you from the Arrows vs. Armor video you did with Tod's Workshop a while ago. At the end of that, there was a mention of possibly doing some other in-depth scientific experimental archaeology - side of the breastplate, helmets and other armor pieces, different armor and weapons, and so on, but COVID put a damper on that. Tod has been doing lots of ad-hoc tests with the Lockdown Longbow videos, but I just wanted to know if there was any plans in the works for more of the long-form strongly historically accurate tests like the Arrows vs. Armor one now that the pandemic is starting to wind down and vaccines are getting rolled out.

A local hero where I live is Giovanni dalle bande nere, Ludovico Giovanni de medici(1498-1526) irc, he is known as a valiant warrior and Machiavelli said he was one who could have unified Italy.

He's also known to have had a revolutionary impact in the art of war, since apparently he "invented" light cavalry. Yet he is portraied in a plate armor... Did he just used mounted men in a different way, or there was a significant innovation in his logistics or equipment? Are there other significant figures, in Europe, in the evolution of cavalry?

Thanks for the ama and looking for the movie... Also sorry if my question is a deviation from the intended.

OK guys, thank you for all the AMAZING questions! I've been typing frantically trying to keep up. I have to take a break and run off for a bit, but I'll come back and do some more a bit later today. Thank you again for your interest! -TC

In accounts of his death, Charles the Bold is often described as having been struck in the head with a halberd that cleaved through his skull and helmet both. Is this account legendary or true?

Is there any effort on the royalty and/or nobility to keep track and/or control the access of arms and armour?

To my knowledge, at the time period, some large cities may have their own local armoury, and the king even encourage the people to take up training in arms.

However, regarding the weapons and armours themselves, is there any effort to record and/or regulate the process from the raw material (wood, ores, etc) to the smithy (quota, limits, record of selling to whom, etc) to the armoury (record of equipments going in, record to make sure there is no missing arms and armours, etc)?

Hi Toby,

Firstly I’ll just say that I’ve been very much enjoying Armour of the English Knight Volume II.

My question related to your intriguing assertion of Sallet Aventails being a thing in English Armour. How do you think they functioned given the close fitting nature around the face and lack of visible closure? A laced slit up the back perhaps like late 13th century separate coifs? Secondly do you think that the ‘maille bevors’ that show up in the German Lands, most prominently in the Thun Sketchbook might in fact not be bevors at all but another regional variation on the Sallet Aventail concept?

Thanks!

Can't wait to read a the questions and answers as they come!

During Richard III'a era, were there any significant innovations in armour designs and why was this significant? If there were none, what would they have done to improve their armour?

Looking at a few modern collections of armor, the amount of stuff from the late 15- through 16th c. is huge, compared to earlier medieval. Obviously, armor got used up, was recycled. I've been curious as to how it got used up, and how long it would last. For example, looking at the sharp corners of a 13th c. helm, it's rather obvious that after a number of good beatings there'd be cracks there, and those would be tricky things to re-weld, repair to original strength. Have we any notion of how often some active warrior like Henry V had to replace his whole armor kit? Or did he replace just some hard-wearing pieces?

What sort of arms training would a nobleman or other fighting man in the medieval/early modern period have undertaken? Could we expect other social classes to have undertaken any sort of weapons training as well?

Also, warfare and weaponry seem to be a magnet for amateur historians. How does that affect the way that you interact with your field and public outreach?

Hello, Toby, it's good to see you here!

This is a bit off-topic, but I'll ask anyways seeing that you are here. I remember that you said once (or maybe it was Matt Easton?), don't remember where, that Henry V had commissioned some extremely rich swords from Toledo. Would you have a source for that? I find it mighty interesting.

Now, for something on topic, was it common in the time of Richard III to commission rich pieces abroad?

Hello Toby! What kind of arms and armor were the Nasrid of Granada using during the Castillan conquest of Granada? Was it closer to Middle Eastern Islamic armors or Europeans armor?

Hello! I am looking for a book recommendation: I really enjoyed reading Herodotus, Thucydides and Plutarch - do you have any medieval recommendations for modern translations of historians from your period of expertise?

Hi Toby!

First of all, congratulations on maintaining such an excellent set of arms and armour at the Wallace Collection. My background is in modern political and legal history. When I visited, I was immediately envious of the kinds of artefacts that medieval historians get to work with!

As a proud Welshman, I'm always extolling the virtues of Henry Tudor and his march from Milford to Bosworth. What always fascinates me is the eclectic background of his combined force of French, Welsh and English soldiery.

My question is regarding Bosworth, and how it affected medieval warfare. I'm sure you're familiar with Chris Skidmore's excellent study of the battle and the events leading up to it. Skidmore writes extensively on the military theories of continental European strategists and how they were applied at Bosworth by Richard and Henry. How, if at all, did the battle change the nature medieval warfare - through the arms and armour used, and manoeuvres on the battlefield? Was there any great revelation? Did one weapon or method of attack emerge from it with a better reputation than another, like we see at Agincourt, or was it business as usual after it?

Thanks again :)

Thank you for doing this AMA :)

You mentioned that you have been designing full plate armour for ~30 years. Can you describe your process for doing so? Do you start with a period you want to emulate, with a certain use case, ...?

What was the relationship of Jews to arms and armor? Were they barred from owning any, did they favor any items of self-defense (possibly in contravention of restrictions or paying the ransom to nullify it, as I've been told that's why some restrictions were established in the first place), and were they particularly involved with manufacturing in some way?

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Edit: oh, right, that's an English king and referencing his age implies a focus on his polity, so no Jews.

Do we have any receipts for armour from the royal houses of York or Lancaster for armour for the king's personal use? Do we know if they patronized both foreign and English armourers?

And if I may, a more methodological question. One thing I love about your latest book is how it creates a coherent timeline of English armour's development in the later 15th century from a rather bewildering array of Effigies who depict people with a variety of dates of death. It seems like this book has more Effigies that were made several years before or after the death of the subject. How did you date these Effigies? I know in some cases you mention things like Lancastrian or Yorkist livery collars. Were there other clues? Did effigy carving in the later 15tj century become less closely associated with the immediate death of the subject?

Did knights really have a seperate plate of armour melded around their crotch?

Hi Toby! Huge fan!

For such a practical "clothing", how did something like the giant English style elbow /couters develop? Wouldn't it impose an unnecessary handicap for english knights in combat? or are these only used on ceremonial/parade armours?

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Thanks!

Hello, I have been following your work for a while, especially on English effigies of the late middle age. I was wondering if you were also familiar with Scottish effigies. I've noticed a large amount of unusual things concerning them, namely a large form of archaism. I've seen late 15th-early 16th century effigies (especially in the Highlands) with early 15th century plaque belts, jupon, downward overlapping faulds (instead of the usual type), integrated rearbrace spaulders and bascinets with verveille. My question would be, would these represent the equipment used at the time, explained possibly by the relative isolation of northern Scotland, or perhaps we are in front of an artistic tradition aiming at preserving an old template, appearing anachronistic?

This is a question that might have asked before, but I can't let the chance go to waste if there is an expert on the period here. Thanks in advance!

What was the actual survival rate of a armoured Knight being shot by personal firearms during this period? And perhaps more importantly - how many could continue fighting after being shot?

There are many blogs on the internet that speculate and conduct experimental reenactments with guns at different ranges against different armours, and I know some craftsmen during this period offered "marks of proof" that their armors could indeed stand up against guns. But in practise, do we know what happened to Knights that were shot on the battlefield 1450-1500, and at what ranges they were usually hit?

Love your stuff, and I was pleasantly surprised to see you on Age of Empires 4's hand on history.

From my understanding, which may be totally incorrect, textile armor does not show up in depictions in Western Europe until the 11th century. Is there any reason for this (assuming I'm not incorrect)?

Do we know how dismounted men at arms fought enemies as a unit? Did they fight constantly, with individuals retreating as they got wounded or exhausted? Or did entire units retreat as they were reinforced by reserves?

Did the semi professional infantry of the 15th century drill? And if they did, how did they do it (such as in groups, in private, etc)?

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I just ordered both of your books on English Armour, I am pretty excited!

Hey, love your work! A couple questions What type of armour did spanish knights wear in the 15th century? What did the average swiss pikeman wear in the 15th century? Finally was brigandine (15th century) a realistic option for an average soldier? Apologies if you have already answered these questions!

I have a few questions.

What were the preferred weapons to choose from for nobility above knights (Barons thru Dukes) for personal defense, mounted or unmounted? Even traveling with a fully armed escort had to be extremely hazardous at times.

I've read that training of nobility could be quite varied, though I've studied mostly about Highland and Lowland Scots. Were certain weapons favored by individual families?

Was there any requirement or obligation to the reigning family for training and time investment from the sons of ranked nobility with the King's guards or troops? Or was it done as a "favor" to the family at the King's whim or as a standard practice?

I realize the answers could be a bit long. If you have a paper or papers that address these questions, would you direct me to them?

Thank you for your time.

Hey Toby! Thanks for doing this. My question is simple:

Were ball and chain weapons actually used in combat? I've heard that weapons like flails were purely wall decorations as they were too unwieldly in combat. I've also heard they were indeed used in combat and always wanted to hear from the proper historian on what they think.

Personally I think wall decorations but would love to know!

In comparison to his peers, how gifted a a battlefield tactician—and just general knight/combatant—was the Black Prince?

How precisely do we know what Richard III's personal armor looked like? How would it have differed from other men-at-arms'?

Dr. Capwell, Earlier this year the HEMA community rediscovered a treatise from Joachim Meyer that had interesting weapons never quite seen before. Have there been any discoveries relating to these types of unique arms? And second, are there any more lost treatises we may find in your collections!? Cheers!

I recently watched your collaboration video you did with Todd's Workshop about the efficacy of English Longbows against French plate at Agincourt (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DBxdTkddHaE)

How well executed do you think those tests were? Were you satisfied with the tests? Any surprises? What would you do differently? Are there other tests you would like to do in similar vein?

Thank you for doing this. A few questions all on the same subject: your amazing Mid-15th century Italian armor (which I believe Wade Allen has now).

Historically, would voiders also have been worn in the "mail over upper cannon" configuration, or would they accept the risk of leaving it potentially unprotected when they could have tucked the sleeve in to provide better safety? I can't find any evidence to voiders in tandem; not even a modern reenactor or jouster. It seems plausible based on the double mail fauld. What's another two or three pounds of voider weight at that point...

The "mail over upper cannon" seems it would move more fluidly than pauldron directly over the upper cannon does for me. I'm having my armor reworked a bit to see if that helps. The lack of mail on the inner elbow or upper arm on a thrust coming from underneath might not be accepted at some tournaments. Our local group requires it for safety. My armor is based on a combination of the Le Landeron surviving parts and legs from either Mantova B1 (mail demi-greave fringe) or B2 (smooth demi-greave) with an armet & wrapper.

I'm leaning towards mail sleeve tucked into the elbow and rerebrace for safety. Yet the distinct styling of the two layer fauld, dangling mail sleeves, mail sabatons, and mail below the knee is such a striking appearance. Did you ever try the sleeve tucked variation as well? If so, did you have a preference?

Thanks for doing this.

One thing which I have noticed in both your book and the works of other authors is that for funerary helmets (in England) from around 1480-1500 a really large proportion of them are armets and close helmets in a period where the sallet was still popular.

Do we have any idea of how quickly the English replaced their sallets with more armet like helmets? Would they have been a common sight at Bosworth (in Richard's charge, etc.) and Stoke, or not yet really popular?

Thanks, and I have really enjoyed both of your English Knight books .

Hey hey,

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Toby, I'm very interested in Welsh armor. According to Heath (old source but reliable in this subject) the Welsh weren't really into using armor by the most of their coexistence with the English. Their pay was even lower than the English archers in the early 14th century because, according to Heath, they lacked any armor (padded etc). However, chronistic sources seems to stop talking about it as the 14th century progresses. Only the Irish now were mentioned as unarmoured troops (e.g. Stoke Field), even in War of Roses' engagements where Welsh and Irish fought, but only the Irish deserved the mention for lacking armor. Why? Is that related to the decline of Welsh service in French soil?

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Another question: Welsh armor by 1440-1500 had any difference from their English style? Like, just as the Portuguese were more Flemmish-inclined than the Castillians, and the Aragonese more Italian-inclined than the Castillians.

Pedro

I'm not sure how much this is in your field of expertise but I wonder, if weapons from other cultures were to be intreduced to Europe during the One hundred years war what might be their effect? I was think of stuff like a Katana or other Japanese weapons of around the same time, just for example. Would such weapons have a place in such a war or would they count as useless, or perhaps the opposite and they will become dominant. What are your thoughts on this? Are there weapons that could have changed the war had they been intreduced?

Hi! How similar to english armors the Burgundians would be around the time of the ordonnances of the 1470s? Would you know a good source about this time?

It's an absolute honor that you're doing this, I'm a huge fan!

Obviously, soldiers, especially common infantry, wouldn't be buying new equipment constantly to stay in fashion, so how often would they upgrade? Would you see a lot of normal soldiers wearing grandpa's kettle hat instead of getting a newer sallet? I suppose I'm wondering how old equipment would be before being replaced and how new the replacements would be.

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On an unrelated note but a question I have that you might be able to answer: How do you put on the culet for Henry VIII's Field of Cloth of Gold foot armor? It fits so tightly around the ass and seems to be well integrated with other major components, and I haven't been able to find a video of someone putting one on.

Since crossbows could have substantially higher draw weights than regular bows due to using spanning mechanisms, were crossbows used in any capacity as specialized anti armor weapons during this period?

What is your favorite weapon based on effectiveness and what is your favorite from a stylistic perspective

As a historian and HEMA chap, perhaps you can give your opinion on HEMA training compared to historical training.

I have perused a number of "fechtbuchs/combat manuals" over the years, but I've rarely seen anything that's translated well from simple pre-arranged drills to having more degrees of freedom. Most of what I've seen published by historical training groups is the same scrappiness we see in other countries "martial" arts. It's very rare to see high level skill that is implied in old manuals and for actual survival.

I'm interested in how the historical combatants trained safely enough to be ready for warfare and developed solid skill levels. Is there any evidence for different practices back then, in much the same way those of us who have history in unarmed arts and have used them successfully often have a different approach than sport artists (of course I'm not suggesting at all that in reality everything is remotely neat, dependent on initial conditions and actions, just that it's a different kind of messiness).

The same question applies to weapon arts from other regions, of course. It's rare to see skills in the modern day that would tip the luck of combat significantly in favour of one combatant, or make both more hesitant, mostly I've seen brute strength and flailing.

Thanks for your time. I'm hoping you'll be able to show me I'm wrong.

Can you please discuss the importance of gunpowder weapons in The War of the Roses? Particularly the impact on fortification construction and the effectiveness of bombards/cannons in siege warfare. Would you agree these weapons were important in centralizing power in the Monarchy?

Is it possible to determine whether the English kings of the fifteenth century had distinct preferences for types or styles of arms and armour?

I'm thinking of equivalents to Emperor Maximilian I's famous reputation for his love of tournament armour (recently quite thoroughly documented in an exhibit in the Met) and the longbow. Or to skip back a few centuries, Richard I's popular association with the crossbow - despite or possibly because of his somewhat gruesome end at its hands.

I'm more interested in if we have any idea of their personal preferences in their equipment and that of their immediate household rather than, say, how they preferred to wage war on a larger scale but happy for any insight offered!

I’ve realised I’m hogging up too many questions so if you want to pass this by to get to more people that’s cool. I’m writing an EPQ on the accuracy of iconography (of all forms) in portraying the intricacies of armour 1066-1485 any works you could direct me too or knowledge/advice you may have would be much appreciated

Hello there. I've a question regarding something in your book about english armour 1450-1500. In it there's an effigy of a sir Puddletown. You interpreted the sallet as having a separate tail lame but the effigy itself seems to show the extra layer as a border going around the skull of the sallet. I was wondering why you chosw to interpret it as a tail lame.

There's also the statement that closed helmets were invented in the 1470s, which I'd dare disagree with a bit. There seem to be possible closed helmets depicted in german art pieces as far back as the 1430s, such as the Heilssspiegel Altar by Konrad Witz. Unfortunately due to the helmets in question having rondels at the pivots one cannot tell whether the bevor pivots on the same point or not.

Were pollaxes used during the crusades? Most artwork depicts the classic swords shields mainly used. Was the pollaxe used less due to the different styles and construction of the middle Eastern armour compared to European varietys?

Hello M. Capwell.

Is it true to say that there was something significantly wrong or flawed with the english army of the late Hundred Years war ? Or is it rather the French who became too good for the English ? Or was the long string of defeats suffered by the English purely contingent and caused by localized errors ?

Or is it a mix of all three ? I guess this is the most correct answer, but I'm particularly interested in the first option. English performance in the hundred years war is often lionized and glorified, but the last and most disastrous phase of the conflict is largely ignored by popular history.

Ok. Perhaps a naive and or/poorly informed question but to what extent did “enchanted, magic, blessed, holy etc etc” weapons and armor actually exist, if at all?

Are there some truth that Man-at-Arms and Knights skills in doing tourneys could be counted as training and the skills they use there could be applied as well in wars in the 11th-13th century? Also where would Knights and Man-at-Arms train in how to fight in Cavalry formation?

Thanks in advance for those!!! How did guisarmes looked like, and were they still in use in the late 15th century ?

Dr. Capwell I am a mega huge fan of yours. If you were a low level knight fighting in the war of the roses and didn’t know the outcome which side would you rather have fought for? Why?

What is your favourite lesser known or under appreciated weapon?

Would highly decorative armour increase your odds of being taken for ransom rather than killed?

Arguably a little off topic, but I just finished reading a book on the subject of Schleswig-Holstein history, which includes (of course) a section on the Treaty of Ribe from 1460, whereby the Knighthood (Ritterschaft) of Schleswig and Holstein insisted that the Danish King agree to keep the territories "up ewig ungedeelt" or undivided for eternity. One imagines an order of knights extending and delineating their feudal rights in opposition to the king.

Is there anything you could say about this nobility in comparison to the nobility of England? Would they have had similar arms and armour to their English counterparts? Was there considerable variation across Northern Europe, or did concepts of chivalry extend as far as places like Jutland?

An interesting effigy I found the other month that ended up doing rounds on the XV Facebook group as a result (link) unfortunately it was destroyed in the fire at Brancepeth, it’s a wooden effigy dating from the 1480s however it appears to be in a 1370s-1420s (ish) style harness with the exception of the sallet which appears of a late design. I haven’t had a chance to acquire your second book yet but if you have any adds what may be going on that would be interesting. I think Fred Ryall put it down to it being a wooden effigy but I’m not entirely convinced although he might well be right.

Hello, Mr. Capwell, I have two questions concerning the role of the Celtic people in the War of the Roses.

Firstly, To what extend did Irish forces and more specifically "wilde irshe" serve as levies in the War of the Roses? The War of the Roses coincided with a low point in the English control of Ireland and was also at a time when many of the Norman lords had assimilated into Gaelic culture. Did any of the lords still loyal to the English crown serve in the War across the Irish sea? If so what kind of troops did they employ?

Would it be safe to assume that the high born would have been equipped in a similar way to those of the English forces if they could afford it? The forces of which would have followed the tactics and equippment of the native Gaelic warriors, that is Kerns and Gallowglass?

Secondly, Was there any notable difference between Welsh forces and those of the English? Such as distinctive arms and armor or style of fighting?

Did people paint their armor? I don’t just mean gold trim or bluing, I mean did anyone paint their armor like all bright red or something extremely blaring and extravagant?

I read somewhere that surcoats were phased out around this time, did people just use Tabards instead or use a plain unadorned harness? If they left them unadorned, how did people tell each other apart in a field of steel clad men in helmets?

Thank you for doing this post! Unfortunately I haven’t been able to get your second book, I’m hoping for an extra special Christmas present. I’m particularly interested in the role of the surcoat and fabric covered armour throughout the 15th century in England. I enjoyed reading about it in your first book but I’m also interested in the armour that was not for the high nobility and men at arms. Any knowledge you could share on fabric covered armours such as brigandines or the styles of surcoats would be greatly appreciated

There is nothing more admirable than your commitment to public history!

To what extent was the increasing protection of e.g. knightly armor in the 14th and 15th centuries the result of new threats on the battlefield vs the increasingly cheap and capable iron production?

What weapon was the best for killing a heavily armoured knight on foot?

How did English armor managed to be preserved and not recycled or repurposed or lost in a bog?

Hi!

A while back I tried on some old chain mail (like 70-90 pounds) and it just hurt to have it on. So my question is: how long were armored knights able to keep their armor on until taking it off? And what was the most vulnerable point in a knights armor?

Thank you for all you do. The real time exploration you and your mates do/have done on practical fighting techniques and armor is fascinating.

Thank you for taking the time! I've always been wondering about how a cavalry charge was coordinated, in particular how riders having rushed into the enemy recieved orders to either fall back and regroup or to drive the charge home.

How exactly did a body of cavalry maneuver in the heat of battle?

First, Dr. Capwell, I’d like to thank you for your TV appearances, especially your ability to cut through a lot of the myths regarding arms and armour. I’ve made it a point to find examples of your videos on YouTube. My question is on the real costs associated with outfitting armed personnel of that era. For men-at-arms or knights, or whoever - how would equipment costs compare to that person’s expected yearly income, for example?

Tucking your greaves into your boots seems like a reasonable thing to do, but contemporary sources only show people doing so in the very late medieval period. Did people never have their greaves on the inside of their boots earlier in the medieval period? Why not?

Do you have a 3d scanner or 3d printer at the collection?

What are the most bizarre or unusual items in the collection?

What are your favourite historical documentaries?

Hi Toby :) I saw your books recently and I am very much considering buying them. I am also very passionate about XIV-XVI centuries armour and I wish to become a part-time armourer. The thing is I only know what italian and german armour from this era looked like, and I learned quite recently that other countries produced different armour, though I am not quite sure. Are there books that present all of the different styles of european armour, or authors that you recommend me? Also books or articles about european chainmail and the historical techniques of making it, I’m very much interested in these :)

Thank you for your answers toby :D

This has been a great read! Thank you, Dr. Capwell

No questions as you have done a wonderful job !

Just wanted to say thank you for all your hard work in making the Wallace Gallery armoury such a special place. Its always a highlight to visit, and hoping to see more expo's in the future!

Would you say that the cavalry charge was the most effective tactic that a late medieval army had at their disposal? Was there anyways to defend against such a tactic?

Which fantasy setting do you think nails historically accurate martial arts the best while taking liberties with weapons/armor to suit their setting? Any particular movies or TV that stick out?