Take the ancient Celts, my understanding is that women fought alongside men and some held high leadership positions (such as Boudicca). I assume Roman invasion and values had a big impact - but they didn't cover all of the Celtic held areas and those still seemed to change.

What about the post-Roman and pre-Anglo Saxon period?

I used airquotes for "depose" because I don't mean that Rome necessarily waged war on Athens. I'm just wondering what factors led to the simultaneous dwindling of Athens and rise of Rome from ~350BCE to 31BCE.

I'm currently researching some equine artifacts to make some reconstructions and got caught up in a little side quest! I wanted to see if anyone here knew the specific significance of the ceremonial horse masks found in Pazyryk burials. These masks were very elaborate (ceremonial), often appear to be gilded and made of a combination of leather and felt. Obviously there was some symbolism or power associated with the animals depicted that was imbued into the horse wearing them - the examples I've seen most often are a stag's head or horns and a ram.

Can anyone tell me what meanings are associated with these animals within the context of the Pazyryk/Scythian culture?

TIA.

I'm obsessed with the Ottoman Empire, but I'm lost when it comes to good books on the subject. I'm quite adept at the subject in general, so the more in-depth the better. Personal experience with the book you recommend would be great, but obviously if you've heard good things about a book I'd love to hear :)

I'm doing some research and I'm looking for any primary or secondary sources that confirm with at least reasonable certainty that the Golden Horde catapulted the plague victims in their army over the walls at Kaffa, thus infecting the Genoese there. Any help out there? Thanks.

I'm interested in learning about the beginning of the Unites States. Are there any good sources (books, documentaries, research papers, biographies) that I can study? Any suggestions are appreciated

In Battle of Khakin Gol which was part of Soviet Japanese border conflicts Japanese and Manchukuo forces fought between Soviet and Mongolian Border Forces. But always when I hear about this I wonder what were Japanese trying to achieve with this?

From what I know, religion in the USSR and its satellite states was never outright banned but was heavily discouraged which (apparently) is the reason why East Germany is so irreligious. Though despite this, pretty much all of the former Warsaw pact countries, especially Poland, and even Russia itself are overwhelmingly religious to this day. Except for east Germany, where it is known as being one of, if not the least religious places on earth. So why was the USSR so successful in supressing religion in just eastern Germany, but not even itself or its other satellite states?

We have an insane amount of resources on male homosexuality in ancient Rome. All the different names and power dynamics etc. But did these power dynamics exist in ancient China? The social stigma of being "a bottom" for example. I found an article talking about how in the Qing dynasty two men could not be charged with "forced sodomy" against the men they attacked because they happened to be actors who played women on stage.

But what about earlier accounts? Like the Han dynasty in an equal period to Rome. Were feminine gay men viewed with disdain? Did it matter if you penetrated or were the penetrator? Or did no one really care as long as you eventually have children?

I don't know how it's taught in other places, but here in Brazil I was taught in school that Newton developed Calculus - an entire realm of Mathematics - because there were no other tools he could use to describe the natural laws of physics. However, considering what we know about ancient civilizations' use of mathematics, engineering and astronomy, I find it very hard to believe that they didn't have their own versions of advanced maths.

My question is: do we know of Calculus popping up in History before Newton?

I recall one of my professors mentioning that the people of Mesopotamia drank beer because fermentation sterilizes water. At the time, I remember thinking that beer/alcohol causes dehydration, to which my professor replied that it was likely of low alcohol content. Is any of this true? Did early civilizations use fermentation as a means of disinfecting drinking water?

Secondary question that doesn’t warrant a full post: What was the name of the civilization on an island in the Mediterranean (modern day Greece?) that discovered how to make the color purple and were also very wealthy as a whole?

I have read that Philip Augustus was the first to use the title "King of France". His predecessor was instead "King of the French", and before that, there were Kings of the Franks.

Then in 1830, Louis Philippe shifted the royal title from King of France back to King of the French.

What gives? What's the significance of these different titles? What did Philip Augustus and Louis Philippe mean by using these styles?

Thanks.

-EDIT- Thanks everybody for the answers so far. Much appreciated.

As of this edit, the responses have focused on Napoleon Bonaparte and Louis Philippe. But what about Philip Augustus?