Related question: Why was 1952-1972 a period of (mostly) landslides, in US Presidential politics?
I asked these in Michael Cohen's recent AMA but was too late.
3 Answers 2017-02-14
1 Answers 2017-02-13
Though there are differing estimates of the embargo's maintenance cost to the US (between 1.2 and 3.6 billion USD/year), they are fairly low compared to its supposed cost to Cuba. Its government claims it has cost their country around 756 billion USD (full disclosure, I'm just pulling figures off Wikipedia). How likely is it that the above figure is accurate, and how has that effected the country and its people?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
I'm looking for detailed sources about organizations of every unit of ww2. Like, the compositions of divisons and every unit down to platoons. Could someone suggest me some good sites or every kind of material that could help me?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
I'm guessing Chiang Kai Shek but I also don't know what I'm talking about. The star on his helmet appears to symbolize the CCP. Could possibly be Japanese. Any information would be appreciated!
1 Answers 2017-02-13
First of all, I really don't mean this post to offend anyone; I ask this question with complete sincerity and respect for Africa's ancient people.
I ask this question mostly because it seems like they never had an ancient (we'll say pre fall of Rome) civilization.
I completely acknowledge the great medieval kingdoms and empires of sub Sharan Africa, but these seem to arise much later in time, after the fall of Rome and what most consider the end of the ancient era. They were also greatly influenced by newer technologies and the spread of Islam during its golden age.
While China, the subcontinent of India, Europe, the Near East, Northern Africa, and MesoAmerica all developed very advanced societies during the ancient era, it seems like sub Saharan Africa never did, or at least that's what is mostly heard.
It seems like the only ancient society in subsaharan Africa that did develop was that around Ethiopia, but mostly because of its deep contact with Egypt. But aside from this it seems like there was not another society that developed into a great civilization.
One reason I believe they didn't develop an ancient civilization was because of their isolation, separated by the saharan desert or, a very tough environment. But Mesoamerica also faced complete isolation, and a very harsh environment as well, along with a complete lack of large domesticated animals such as horses, cattle, or camels.
So why did subsaharan Africa never really have an advanced civilization, independent or not from the rest of the world?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
Are our surviving Arabic texts after the 9th century still written in Classical Arabic, in a local vernacular, or something else? I'm particularly curious about the type that would have been used in the religious texts of Safavid Iran, my main area of interest, as most religious writings there were still in Arabic until the late 17th century.
1 Answers 2017-02-13
[deleted]
1 Answers 2017-02-13
It seems that there was a shift from the somewhat heavier, more expensive bronze cuirass to lighter, more cheaper forms of body armor such as the linothorax in the Greek city states. Was this just a way to cheaply equip mass amounts of troops? Did richer, more elite soldiers continue to use metal cuirasses? How widespread was the move to lighter forms of armor? Is it possible soldiers carried both a metal cuirass and a linothorax with them while on the move?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
The map https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Verdun#/media/File:Battle_of_Verdun_map.png shows the site of these fortresses.
The wikipedia article describes the (artillery-era) modernization of these forts as beginning in the 1880s with the addition of steel-reinforced concrete. Did they expect a war with 20 years of foresight? Or did they simply distrust everybody and want lots of defenses as part of some grand strategy?
It seems unusual, using this year 2017 as an example, that people might suddenly start constructing fortifications because something might happen in the year 2040.
What was the mentality at the time?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
I've been watching Vikings, plenty of battles between Mercia, Wessex, &c. All the Wessex soldiers wear one standard set of kit, all the Mercians another. How accurate is that? Would there have been a standard set of armour for all foot soldiers, or would it have been more varied (maybe with a standard tabard?)
1 Answers 2017-02-13
I was wondering how powerful Prussia really was compared to other european states, and what made them so powerful in first place. Was it technology? Tactics? Morale?
Thanks in advance, and sorry for bad english!
1 Answers 2017-02-13
I've heard that Morocco was kinda sorta the first country to recognize the United States. Was there an Arabic translation of the Declaration that was delivered to the sultan?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
Besides the Seljuk Turks and the Fourth Crusade what else if anything helped bring about the end of the Byzantine empire?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
2 Answers 2017-02-13
So, in the course of trying to contextualize some of my dissertation arguments, I've come to realize that "what I know about eunuchs in world history" is really more "what I know about eunuchs in the history of Europe, Asia, and (sometimes) Africa." I'm most familiar with Byzantium, where eunuchs can be found across most levels of society, in political, religious, and even military roles. Was there ever an analogous place for eunuchs -- or a place for eunuchs at all -- in indigenous American cultures?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
Welcome to Monday Methods!
For this installment of MM, I'll be taking over for /u/commiespaceinvader to discuss a slightly different approach to studying history - an Indigenous approach! We won't have time to cover everything under this topic. Therefore, I will be as succinct as possible. But first, let me introduce myself.
My (Reddit) name is /u/Snapshot52. I am Nez Perce from Idaho, USA. My family comes from the Chief Joseph and Yellow Wolf Bands and is originally from a small town in Idaho on my tribe's reservation, but I come from the Puyallup Reservation in Tacoma, Washington. I am currently studying for a BA degree at an (American) Indian college in a program that deals with Indigenous theory, methods, history, (de)colonization, politics, and cultures. I am a former union carpenter's apprentice and have worked in the Pacific Northwest, but now I am working as a tutor, in addition to being a student, at my college. My father worked as a drug and alcohol councilor at a treatment center on the reservation and my mom works as a tribal childcare provider.
Now, some of you might be wondering at this point why I've taken the time to introduce myself with that level of detail, including personal points that might seem irrelevant. And that is a valid thing to wonder. I did so because in order for you, the reader, to truly understand and relate to the information in this post, it is necessary for you to form some kind of relationship with me. That is one of the first lessons in how many Indigenous people approach the study of history - any subject, really - and is one of the key elements to our ways of research. Let's expand on this...
An Indigenous Research Paradigm
What is an Indigenous research paradigm? First, let's explain a few words.
"Indigenous," in the context I'm using it, is being used inclusively and encompasses virtually all peoples/cultures who are the original inhabitants to their specific place in the world and operate separately from those that would be considered colonizers. While it is impossible to generalize and combine all these groups and cultures into a single entity, research demonstrates that many concepts seem to be shared at varying degrees between many Indigenous cultures around the world, from the Aboriginal peoples of Australia to the First Nations of Canada (Wilson, 2008). I typically use the word Indigenous when referencing peoples, cultures, concepts, methods, etc. that, again, rest with Native inhabitants and that stand separate from those who would be considered colonizers.
In this context, "research" is referring to the work, observation, and study of a particular thing.
"Paradigm" is referring to the model that is being used to conduct said research. A paradigm is essentially the set of beliefs that are used within that model.
So when speaking of an Indigenous research paradigm, I am basically saying that Indigenous peoples use our own model and understanding to conduct what we consider research. There is no hard and fast structure for this paradigm, for many other paradigms exist, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous. However, Indigenous scholars have come together in recent years to try and establish key points that seem to be common in the understanding of many Indigenous cultures so as to formally construct examples of these paradigm to better utilize them in a world that has largely marginalized Indigenous ways of thinking and being. Don't take what I'm saying as set in stone. Rather, see it as one way of explaining how and why things are.
Relationality
Two vital elements typically make up an Indigenous research paradigm. The first is relationality. Relationality refers to the relationships that we all have with everything. People, animals, places, objects, even thoughts and ideas. In some way, shape, or form, we have a relationship to anything and everything. These relationships form the basis for understanding knowledge. While some relationships vary in intensity, the ones we form to gain knowledge need to be personal and have meaning. Otherwise, we ultimately fail to truly understand that knowledge. So an Indigenous research paradigm places the emphasis of understanding on the actual relationship between two things.
Within the dominant culture of the United States (speaking for my area of the world), a Western style of research, theory, and understanding persist. Western concepts typically place the emphasis of understanding on the actual object rather than the relationship.
An example of these two styles: ethical standards of many Western researchers, both in the past and the present, dictate that a researcher should have a fairly strict observational role when conducting certain research methods. They stay distant, watch from afar, and have as little contact as possible to what/who they're observing. The idea is that this maintains objectively by avoiding a bias. However, an Indigenous research paradigm would have the researcher engaged in a participatory manner with what/who is being observed. They would strive to have contact, form close relationships, and even become part of the research being conduct. The idea behind is that with established relationships, the researcher can better understand the context and nuances that exist within the subject and have more authentic results (Chilisa, 2012; Wilson, 2008).
And this is why I took the time to tell you who I am. Rather than just identifying myself as some random user of the internet, you now know a little about me and might be able to relate through one of the details I mentioned about my life. It is only natural to identify with people we share common interests with or who perhaps come from a similar area. And while you might not care about me because of my small bio, you might reason while reading this post "ah, that makes sense why he would think that considering his background." That would be a manifestation of the idea behind relationality!
Relational Accountability
This is the second vital element: relational accountability. This refers to the accountability of the researcher to act respectfully, responsibly, and accurately regarding both the relationships they participate in and the knowledge they gain through those relationships.
Assuming we're using an Indigenous research paradigm, the idea is that because you have formed relationships with whatever is being studied, you now have a personal stake in the research. This stake is more than just the fact you're putting your name on the final paper. Those you interviewed are now your friends, you've been accepted by the community that you have connected with, and the journey you went on took years and involved a lot personal effort. Because of all these things, you now have a greater stake in the research you have conducted and are now about to present to others. If you care about these things, then you will be bound to treat not just your research, but them with dignity because your relationships are dependent on you being responsible.
This type of mentality is what exists within many Indigenous cultures today. Because many of these communities operate on a more collective ideology, there is personal investment in these relationships and your life and the lives of all those you care about depends on maintaining those relationships. And this is the case with knowledge as well.
Indigenous Methodologies
Now we're to the point: how do we study history? There are several methods Indigenous scholars utilize.
Oral History - While writing has certainly be adopted by tribes, either willfully or forcefully, many of the traditions and legends are still passed along via the oral tradition. Western researchers make use of oral traditions when conducting research, but there is a different kind of emphasis put on it from an Indigenous perspective. While many would view these are being anecdotal and require corroborative evidence, operating under an Indigenous research paradigm helps us to safeguard against misinformation. When one is part of the culture that exists in the context of their research, details and specifics can be more readily shared by those relating the oral knowledge. Subtle nuances that would not normally be included in the story can be identified and can give the researcher further insight into often excluded information. (Note: Indigenous researchers would, of course, still obtain corroborative evidence.)
Talking Circles - Many Indigenous methods involve verbal communications and personal accounts for the particular matter of research. Another process of accomplishing this is holding a talking circle, whether that be with multiple individuals who you are interviewing or even fellow researchers. The goal of the talking circle is to do exactly as it sounds: get into the shape of a circle and talk with each other. The circle has a lot of symbolic meaning in Indigenous cultures and represents a more holistic view of things. Everyone in the circle thus regarded as equal and learning from each other rather than focusing solely on one person, such as in a lecture style. This allows for a free flow of information and to have knowledge be built upon. When culturally appropriate, it conveys a sense of being inclusive and informal, developing further the idea of personal relationships.
Land/Place-based Pedagogy - Rather than dealing strictly or mostly with the abstract, Indigenous cultures often look for the tangible. Even many spiritual beliefs are manifested in some physical form or another. Traditionally, prior to colonization and the institution of Western style learning among tribes, Indigenous communities would have had a more land/place-based pedagogy (way of teaching). Learning would be done in nature or at places of great importance, not at a school-like building made specifically for instruction. Objects in nature and nature itself would be used to convey information, such as in the form of stories. Relationships would be formed with that place in particular to act as a memory aid and to transmit tribal history and values.
Storytelling - While this might seem like a childish method to some, storytelling is actually a big part of how we learn and remember things in general. To Indigenous peoples, storytelling and storytellers are highly regarded. It is "necessary to maintain a collectivist tradition" and "is a relational process that is accompanied by particular protocol consistent with tribal knowledge" (Kovach, 2010, p. 42). While the Western tradition does make room for storytelling, it is not viewed the same from an Indigenous perspective. Rather than appearing as a "narratable self," Indigenous storytelling " is grounded in a unique history and trajectory, revealing value-systems and ways of knowing of diverse Indigenous peoples" (Caxaj, 2015, p. 2). Storytelling has been a method for transmitting information from generation to generation for thousands of years and has been utilized across multiple cultures (Momaday, 2001; Eck, 2006; Wilson, 2008). Its role in Indigenous methodology is still acknowledged and respected.
When it comes to conducting research, these are some of the methods that would be utilized under an Indigenous research paradigm, including when studying history. The Western historical method is also utilized, largely in part because Indigenous scholarship is still growing in the academic community, but it also has wonderful and useful aspects that either align with an Indigenous research paradigm or are adopted by Indigenous researchers.
Primary and secondary sources, firsthand accounts, archived material, and work done in related fields such as archaeology would be utilized. The differences lie in how these things are approached to begin with. Besides a cultural paradigm, two other things factor into how Indigenous people approach the study of history (or anything else): time and holistic mentality.
Many Indigenous people, particularly those growing up around those considered traditional or in traditional communities, have a more fluid or circular view of time rather than the Western linear approach. This can influence how historical events are perceived and recounted. Rather than detailing an event through time, events can be related through place-based context or even present day context.
In regards to a holistic approach, Indigenous ways do not follow a Western tradition of separation. The Western mentality of research is typically very analytical. It involves taking the research, breaking it down to individual pieces, then reconstructing the research. Involved in this is the goal to maintain objectivity. To try to achieve this, a secular view is applied to the approaches. Spirituality, religion, emotion, and personal opinions are avoided and excluded as much as possible because those aspects are often regarded as violating objectivity with subjectivity. An Indigenous research paradigm and methodology is holistic in nature because we have relationships with everything, including those aspects that are excluded in the Western tradition. Therefore, reviewing history and writing historical pieces, under an Indigenous research paradigm, would include elements of the aforementioned aspects because they are seen as necessary to relate the whole picture of things, to acknowledge your relations, and seen that you are held accountable to those relations.
References
Caxaj, C.S. (2015). Indigenous Storytelling and Participatory Action Research: Allies Toward Decolonization? Reflections From the Peoples’ International Health Tribunal. SAGE Productions.
Chilisa, B. (2012). Indigenous Research Methodologies. 1st ed. Los Angeles: SAGE Productions.
Eck, J. (2006). An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Storytelling with Adult Leaners in Supervisory Management. University of Wisconsin-Stout.
Kovach, M. (2010). Conversational Methods in Indigenous Research. First Nations Child and Family Caring Society of Canada.
Momaday, N. (1997). The man made of words. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Wilson, S. (2008). Research is Ceremony: Indigenous research methods. Black Point, N.S.: Fernwood Pub.
8 Answers 2017-02-13
Did Napoleon or any of his predecessors ever make a concerted effort to explore French holdings in the New World, or were there ever French settlements with a significant population that weren't geared specifically toward economic gain?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
Tanks, planes, guns, morters, uniforms, raw resources... What happened to it after the war? Who got his hands on it and was it ever given to private companies?
2 Answers 2017-02-13
In Central / South American countries like Mexico, Brazil and Argentina, the indigenous phenotypes and cultures are still very persistent today even though they were colonized and speak European languages (Spanish and Portuguese). In the USA, however, there are very few Native Americans remaining outside of the reservations, and most Americans just look like European blends. Why did this happen? Different treatment by colonists? Different susceptibility to small pox? Manifest Destiny?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
1 Answers 2017-02-13
2 Answers 2017-02-13
Jason Kottke recently shared a map from Wikipedia displaying the homelands of every character in the Iliad. In his commentary about it, he says "I wonder if that level of mobility was accurate for the time or if Homer simply populated his poem with folks from all over Greece as a way of making listeners from many areas feel connected to the story — sort of the “hello, Cleveland!” of its time."
It's a clever joke, and I wanted to see if AskHistorians could support or deflate the idea. While it doesn't seem improbable to me that such a widespread cast could be assembled (especially among seafaring people), is there any reason to suppose that the breadth of the characters was exaggerated to hook a wider audience?
1 Answers 2017-02-13
